# European Red List of Habitats Table

Habitat Description:
The habitat includes natural caves and cave systems with their associated cave water basins. Caves and their associated waters harbor various biotic communities (plants, animals, fungi and algae) that are restricted to them (troglobiont organisms), or are physiologically and ecologically capable of conducting their entire life cycle inside them (troglophile organisms), or are dependent on them for part of their life cycle (subtroglophile organisms). The habitat is very diverse, but is mainly formed by the karst processes at the calcareous rocks. The caves also vary in size and extent. Their exterior part (cave entrances) includes the twilight zone where light penetrating from the outer world is sufficient to permit human vision. The habitat is rarely vegetated, and in this case dominant plants are mostly algae and mosses, and sometimes also vascular plant species such as  Cortusa matthioli occur. At the interior part of the caves, light is completely lacking. This part is with or without troglobiont or troglophile organisms. The vertebrate fauna includes unique amphibians such as Proteus anguinus in the Adriatic karst systems and bats. Bats are not typical troglobionts because they use the caves only for breeding and wintering. Invertebrate species belong to a limited number of groups, and include remarkable relict species from Gastropoda, Opiliones, Chilopoda (Lithobiidae), Collembola, Coleoptera (Bathysciinae and Trechinae subfamilies) among the terrestrial fauna and Turbellaria, Gastropoda and Urodela, among the aquatic fauna. They form characteristic fauna communities, which are essentially restricted to caves in temperate regions. The majority of the rich in invertebrates’ caves are situated in Southern and South-Eastern Europe (Mediterranean and Balkan Peninsula). The caves may be of different types: dry caves or caves crossed by permanent or temporary watercourses (habitat C6.1),  warm caves and caves humidified by geothermal waters, relatively warm deoxygenated caves, rich in carbon dioxide and sulphur vapor or methane and hydrogen sulphide harboring relict thermophile invertebrate fauna. In the regions with active volcanic activities there are caves formed in lava flows by open-ended tubes or passages resulting from the cooling of the surface (whose molten interior continued to flow). Some large lava tubes on the Canary Islands harbor unique communities of invertebrates, in particular, decapod crustaceans. Caves near the coast, which may contain salt water and can be colonized by specialized (anchihaline) communities, whether or not connected to the sea, are included to the marine habitats.
Indicators of quality:
Caves in good condition are considered the ones that are without any anthropogenic structures and are impacted only by natural processes. These are dynamic systems due to water erosion and collapse of rocks. The main threat is from rehabilitation and lighting for tourist attraction, which would allow non-typical animal and plant species to invade the cave’s interior. Plants growing in caves are equipped with electric lights  known as “lampenflora”. They tend to be less vibrant in color and somewhat disfigured. Typically, lampenflora are mosses, ferns and algae. In caves that are lit constantly by lamps, these invasive plants can cause problems to the cave's natural structure or any prehistoric wall art present. It also may form a threat to troglophile and troglobiont fauna. Indicators of good quality are:
Stable water regime and annual course of temperature
Absence of invasive organisms
No disturbance by humans

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants (only in the cave entrances): Arabis nova, Chenopodium foliosum, Hackelia deflexa, Hymenolobus pauciflorus, Asperugo procumbens, Sisymbrium austriacum, Galium spurium, Saxifraga arachnoidea. Mosses: Eucladium verticillatum, Fissidens cristatus, F. pusillus, Isopterygium elegans, Pohlia nutans, Schistostega pennata.
Fauna (Invertebrates): Worms (Delaya bureschi); Snails (Lindbergia spp.) Crustacean (Muridopsis polymorpha, Diacyclops spp., Speocyclops spp., Niphargus spp., Hyloniscus spp.), Arachnida (Troglohyphantes spp., Lepthyphantes spp., Porrhomma spp., Paranemastoma spp.), Myriapods (Lithobius spp., Bacillidesmus spp.), Insects (Pheggomisetes spp., Duvalius spp.)
Amphibians: Proteus anguis, Speleomantes spp.
Mammals: Eptesicus serotinus, Hypsugo savii, Miniopterus schreibersii, Myotis spp. Plecotus spp., Rhinolophus spp.

Classification:
EUNIS:
H1.1 Cave entrances
H1.2 Cave interiors
H1.3 Dark underground passages
H1.4 Lava tubes
EuroVegChecklist:
Erysimo wittmanii-Hackelion deflexae Bernátová 1986
Annex 1:
8310 Caves not open to the public
Emerald:
H1 Terrestrial underground caves, cave systems, passages and waterbodies
MAES:
Unvegetated or sparsely vegetated habitats (naturally unvegetated areas)
IUCN:
7. Caves and Subterranean Habitats (non-aquatic)

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Caves are known across whole Europe, less in boreal biogeographical region.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete for the EU, except for - at least - Bulgaria, but has data gaps for the (ice caves) in Iceland, and the caves in Switzerland, and the karstic landscape of the Balkan countries (except for Bosnia & Herzegovina), where it is represented by potential distribution. Data sources: Art17, LIT.

Trends in Quantity:
Due to the incomplete territorial data, detailed calculations were not possible. Based on the territorial experts data the trend in quantity is considered as stable, although in few Balkan countries the trend is given as decreasing. In general, the caves in Europe are naturally protected landscape elements; nevertheless in some East European countries the transportation infrastructure projects (roads, tunnels construction) sometimes fail to respect the geological peculiarities of the territory, e.g. the upcoming construction of a highway through the karst area in Mala Fatra Mts. of Slovakia.

Trends in Quality:
Tehre are incomplete quantitative data, but the average quality is likely to have slightly decreased due to pressures (see list of pressures and threats).

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The relatively amount of caves compared to the world total is not known. In Europe, outside the EU28 large karst system is also found in the Balkan counties, but it is assessed that >80/90% of caves in the EU28+ is found within the EU28.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The occurrence of true caves is restricted to calcareous regions and amounts of underground water, but the area of caves can be very large.

Pressures and Threats:
Caves form in limestone (calcium carbonate), and occasionally in dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate), when water containing dissolved carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) seeps into rock crevices and joints. A limestone cave or cavern is a natural cavity that is formed underneath the Earth’s surface that can range from a few meters to many kilometers in length and depth. Although they are old, caves are not a static but a dynamic system, which require relatively stable environmental conditions. Main factors leading to threat of extinction include: 1. Construction of roads and tunnels; 2. Mining of calcareous rock; 3. Landslides and earthquakes; 4. Fertilization and water pollution from agriculture;. 5. Smaller danger are people and their sports activities, like speleoalpinismus.

Conservation and Management:
Caves in the less accessible mountainous sites do not require special conservation interventions, since the conditions are stable and also the trends in quality and quantity are stable. Caves at lower altitudes, where there might be  certain conflicts with human activities, should be strictly protected  and taken into account when spatial land use planning (transportation, construction works) is taking place. In areas with intensive agricultural activities the surface and ground waters should be protected.

Conservation Status:
8310 ALP FV, ATL U1, BOR FV, CON U1, MAC FV, MED XX, PAN U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The development of large caves is a process for hundreds of thousands of years. It is a process which takes place constantly but very slowly. The natural recovery of habitats connected with caves (plants, animals) need shorter time, but probably many hundreds of years. Closure of caves and galleries may prevent caves to be inhabited by bats; the opening of these gives space to very quick settlement.

Summary:
Caves originate over very long time periods and are very diverse in extent, configuration and character - some dry, others permanently or seasonally wet, others warm, deoxygenated or affected by sea spray and variously lit at cave entrances.  They occur throughout Europe but are most extensive in karstic areas. The flora and fauna are specialised, adapted to often extreme environmental conditions and include some remarkable troglophiles or distinctive roosting or seasonally dormant creatures.  Mountainous caves may need little protection except from excessive visitors for caving or tourism which can cause physical or atmospheric damage but sinkholes can allow water pollution from agriculture and waste deposition and mining and quarrying, construction of roads, railways and tunnels may result to their complete destruction.

References:
Bernatová, D. 1991. Rastlinné spoloÄenstvá pod skalnými prevismi vo VeÄ¾kej Fatre. Preslia, 63(1): 21-46.
Gunn, J. (ed.). 2004. Encyclopedia of caves and karst science. Fitzroy Dearborn, Taylor and Francis Group New York London, 1970 pp. 
Van der Meij, T., Van Strien, A.J., Haysom, K.A., Dekker, J., Russ, J., Biala, K., Bihari, Z., Jansen, E., Langton, S., Kurali, A., Limpens, H.,  Meschede, A., Petersons, G., Presetnik, P., Prüger, J., Reiter, G., Rodrigues, L., Schorcht, W., Uhrin, M. and Vintulis, V. 2015. Return of the bats? A prototype indicator of trends in European bat populations in underground hibernacula. Mammalian Biology 80: 170-177.

Criterion A Text:
The average recent trend in quantity (last 50 years) has been calculated from (limited) territorial data. The more or less stable to slightly declining trend leads to the conclusion Least Concern.

Criterion B Text:
Criteria under B are assessed as Least Concern as EOO, AOO and number of locations are much smaller than the thresholds for these criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
The calculated average decline in quality (calculated from limited data) is far below the thresholds for Near Threatened.

Synthesis:
Only limited data were available for calculation. Some countries with expected karst systems are missing, e.g. the localities in Albania, Bosnia and FYROM (Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia), some data are questionable, e.g. 4 km2 in Romania and 15,000 km2 in Austria. Several other countries gave only number of caves, e.g. Germany and Poland. All this information makes the final calculation of trends in quality and quantity, range (EOO) and distribution (AOO) complicated. It is generally very subjective to decide, which part of the cave should be considered as the habitat H1.1 (like cave entrances with evident occurrence of plants or animals), and which part could be considered as a cave without biota.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Some subtypes can be expected due to the large distribution and broad habitat definition of the unit, but there id limited knowledge on distinction of subtypes so far.

Contributors:
Type description: R. Tzonev
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, C. Bita-Nicolaeâ€‹, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, L. Casella, A. ÄŒarni, M. Chytrý, R. Delarze, L.M. Delescaille, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, D. Gigante, Z. KÄ…cki, N. Juvan, J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, V. Matevski, Zs. Molnár, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, D. Paternoster, P. Perrin, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, S. Sciandrello, A. Ssymank, Å½. Škvorc, R. Tzonev, D. Viciani.
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
F3.1e Temperate and submediterranean thorn scrub

Habitat Description:
This habitat is an inland scrub type of about 1.5 to 3 meter high, made up of deciduous shrubs or low trees species of the order Prunetalia, of which many have thorns and many produce berries. These scrubs occur in temperate and submediterranean lowlands and low mountains in Europe, but sometimes are found in dry and rocky localities in higher mountains. The habitat includes šibljak, a deciduous submediterranean scrub type from the Balkan, of which the plant communities are grouped in the order Fraxino orni-Cotinetalia.
The habitat occurs in forest edges and openings, as more-or-less temporary succession stages from grassland to forest, and as hedge structures in cultural landscapes. The scrub is in most cases found on dry to mesic, well-drained, relatively base-rich and poor to moderate nutrient-rich soils. In most cases it is a secondary vegetation, found in sites where Carpinion betuli, Quercion pubescenti-petraeae, Fagion sylvaticae or Aremonio-Fagion are the climax forests, but some stands may grow on more extreme, primary sites, like on shallow, rocky soils and cliffs. The habitat also may occur semi-naturally as part of a mosaic with grassland and forest in extensively grazed areas. On more acidic, nutrient-poor soils in general Rubus scrub (F3.1b) or genistoid scrub (F3.1c) is found, or rather marginally developed mantles with Frangula alnus and Sorbus aucuparia, which can be considered part of the forest habitat.
The composition of the shrub layer varies over the wide range. Most characteristic species in Central and Western Europe are Prunus spinosa, Rhamnus catharticus, Crataegus monogyna and many species of Rosa, including many apomictic species. In some cases non-thorny shrubs may dominate. Saplings of trees are common, and one or a few trees may grow out taller than the scrub formation, indicating succession towards forest. Also the herb layer varies over the range, depending on the soil type and climatic region. It consists of a combination of species from adjacent forest, grassland and tall-herb communities. Climbing herbs are a characteristic feature of this habitat, including Hedera helix, Clematis vitalba and Tamus communis.
In the warmer (submediterranean) parts of the range and on dry, calcareous and south-exposed sites in temperate regions, Prunus mahaleb, Acer monspessulanum, Ligustrum vulgare, Viburnum lantana, Cornus mas, Cotoneaster integerrimus, Cotoneaster tomentosus and Amelanchier ovalis are characteristic species, in sites where forests of the alliance Quercion pubescenti-petraeae are the climax. Some of these shrubs are also typical in šibljak, a deciduous scrubland on shallow soils in the Balkan. Šibljak is supposed to be the primary vegetation in many sites, but it has extended after clearing of forests. Other characteristic deciduous shrubs and low trees of the šibljak are Paliurus spina-christi, Fraxinus ornus, Cotinus coggygria, Syringa vulgaris and Rhamnus intermedia. On Sicily and Corsica Berberis aetnensis is a dominant species of this habitat in the supra-mediterranean mountain belts, where it forms transitions towards oromediterranean hedgehog heath (F7.4b). Berberis hispanica fills such a position in oromediterranean mountains of Spain. However, communities with Berberis cretica in Greece are included in habitat F7.3 (phrygana).
Some Mediterranean species may occur in šibljak, like the evergreen shrubs Ruscus aculeatus and Phillyrea latifolia and the climbers Smilax asper, Clematis flammula and Asparagus acutifolius, but if evergreen shrub species become co-dominant, the scrub is a form of Submediterranean pseudomaquis (habitat F5.3), of which some communities are classified in the order Fraxino orni-Cotinetalia as well. Hippophaë rhamnoides may be one of the thorny shrub species occurring in the thorn scrub habitat, but the physiognomically and ecologically distinct scrubs dominated by Hippophae rhamnoides on xeric, dry, gravelly river terraces, rarely subjected to flooding, are considered as a subset of the alluvial scrub (type F9.1).
Prunus spinosa and other characteristic species may also occur in other scrub types, like those dominated by Rubus species (type F3.1b) or Juniperus species (F3.1a). Buxus sempervirens dominated scrub is included under F5.3. In boreal and subarctic zones Salix species dominate the scrubs on similar soils, and such communities are grouped under habitat F2.3, together with subalpine scrubs. Prunus fruticosa is a shrub that may become dominant in moist grasslands on cacareous soils in the hemiboreal region. For Bulgaria relict stands of this type have been described as a separate habitat type under the Habitats Directive. The syntaxonomical position of these low scrubs is unclear, but they are not considered here as part of thorn scrub. Rubus species may be locally dominant in the habitat, but in other cases they form its own habitat (F3.1b) as a “pre-mantle” formation in front of the thorn scrubs. In more mesic sites and in oceanic regions Corylus avellana may become mono-dominant, forming its own habitat F3.1g. Thorn scrubs in dunes are described under B1.6a and B1.6b.
The habitat has its main distribution in Western and Central Europe and on the Balkan. In the Mediterranean region it is restricted to mountains, to the north the habitat reaches to South-Scandinavia. In cultural landscapes it is one of the most important habitats in terms of diversity and functioning, the latter especially for animal species which find here shelter, breeding sites and food (berries). It is also one of the habitats which increase in dry grassland and agricultural fields after abandonment.
Indicators of quality:
The following aspects may be used as parameters for good quality:
Diversity of scrub species
Presence of rare Rosa species
Absence of non-native species
Presence of berries in autumn as a food source for mammals and birds
Presence of flowers in spring as a nectar source for insects

Characteristic species:
Flora, shrubs/low trees: Acer campestre, Acer monspessulanum, Acer tatarica, Amelanchier ovalis, Berberis aetnensis, Berberis hispanica, Berberis vulgaris ssp. cantabrica, Berberis vulgaris ssp. vulgaris, Carpinus betulus, Cornus mas, Cornus sanguinea, Corylus avellana, Corylus colurna, Cotinus coggygria, Cotoneaster granatensis, Cotoneaster integerrimus, Cotoneaster nebrodensis, Cotoneaster tomentosus, Crataegus granatensis, Crataegus laciniata, Crataegus laevigatus, Crataegus monogyna, Crataegus orientalis, Crataegus transalpina, Euonymus europaeus, Euonymus verrucosus, Hippophae rhamnoides, Ilex aquifolium, Ligustrum vulgare, Ligustrum vulgare, Paliurus spina-christi, Prunus institia, Prunus mahaleb, Prunus ramburii, Prunus spinosa, Pyrus elaeagrifolia, Pyrus pyraster, Malus sylvestris, Rhamnus alpinus, Rhamnus catharticus, Rhamnus intermedia, Rhamnus saxatilis, Ribes alpinum, Ribes uva-crispa, Rosa agrestis, Rosa canina agg., Rosa dumalis, Rosa micrantha, Rosa montana, Rosa obtusifolia, Rosa pouzinii, Rosa pendulina, Rosa rubiginosa, Rosa sherardii, Rosa sicula, Rosa tomentosa, Rosa villosa, Rosa vosagiaca, Rubus caesius, Rubus canescens, Rubus dalmaticus, Rubus idaeus, Rubus ulmifolius, Sambucus nigra, Sorbus aria, Syringa vulgaris, Ulmus minor, Viburnum lantana, Viburnum opulus.
Flora, climbers: Asparagus acutifolius, Clematis flammula, Clematis recta, Clematis vitalba, Hedera helix, Humulus lupulus, Lonicera arborea, Lonicera periclymenum, Lonicera splendida, Lonicera xylosteum, Smilax asper, Tamus communis.
Fauna, mammals: Hazel dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius)
Fauna, birds: Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus), Yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella), Melodious Warbler (Hippolais polyglotta), Red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio), Tree sparrow (Passer montanus)
Fauna, butterflies: Aporia crataegi, Dysauxes punctata, Iolana iolas, Satyrium acaciae, Satyrium pruni, Satyrium spini, Thecla betulae, Meganola togatulalis, Iphiclides podalirius, Synanthedon stomoxiformis, Rhagadea pruni

Classification:
EUNIS:
F3.1 Temperate thickets and scrub
F3.2 Submediterranean deciduous thickets and brushes
EuroVegChecklist:
Berberidion vulgaris Br.-Bl. ex Tx. 1952 nom. conserv.
Carpino-Prunion spinosae Weber 1974
Frangulo alni-Pyrion cordatae Herrera et al. 1991
Tamo communis-Viburnion lantanae (Géhu et al. 1983) Mucina stat. nov. hoc loco
Pruno spinosae-Rubion ulmifolii O. de Bolòs 1954 
Lonicero arboreae-Berberidion hispanicae O. de Bolòs 1954
Berberido aetnensis-Crataegion laciniatae Gianguzzi et al. 2011
Berberido creticae-Prunion cocomiliae Bergmeier 1990
Asparago verticillati-Crataegion tauricae Korzhenevsky et Klyukin 1990
Lamio purpureae-Acerion tatarici Fitsailo 2007
Fraxino orni-Cotinetalia Jakucs 1960
Paliuro-Petterion Fukarek 1962 (=Rhamno-Paliurion Trinajstic (1978) 1996)
Eryngio campestris-Paliurion spinae-christi (Jovanovic 1985) Matevski et al. 2008
Fraxino orni-Cotinion Soó 1960
Pruno tenellae-Syringion (B. Jovanovic 1979) Carni et al. 2009
Syringo-Carpinion orientalis Jakucs 1959
Annex 1:
40A0 *Subcontinental peri-Pannonic scrub (small part)
40C0 * Ponto-Sarmatic deciduous thickets
Emerald:
F3.247 Ponto-Sarmatic deciduous thickets
MAES:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.4 Temperate shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This is a very widespread habitat, occurring all over Europe in temperate regions.

Map Description:
TThe map is incomplete through the whole range, but especially for the Balkan. Data sources: EVA, Art17.

Comment EU28:
estimated from terr. data and interpolation

Comment EU28+:
estimated from terr. data and interpolation

Trends in Quantity:
The overall trend in quantity is slightly positive. This is mainly caused by increases in surface in eastern and southern (submediterranean) parts of the EU. In the north-western part of the EU however important losses in area occurred. The trend calculations have been based on 16 countries. Data from France is missing, unfortunately, as the habitat probably covers large areas there.

Trends in Quality:
In contrast with the positive trend in quantity there is a slightly negative trend in quality in most countries.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This is a widespread habitat, occurring in all temperate areas of the EU and only lacking in true Mediterranean and Boreal-Arctic regions.

Justification of Restricted Area:
It may form small stands or mantles of forests, but in other sites it occupies larger stands. It also occurs semi-natural as hedges in a cultural landscape.

Pressures and Threats:
The most important threat in the countries where the area has decreased is agricultural intensification, especially with regard to removal of hedge structures (refered to as A10 in the list of pressures and threats). Also eutrofication (from agriculture) is considered a threat for the quality of the habitat. For the more natural stands, that are mainly increasing in surface and often considered a threat to other types, especially grasslands, natural succession towards forest is a main threat. Finally forestry (plantations) is reported by several countries as an important threat, as well as encroaching of non-native invasive species.

Conservation and Management:
In a semi-natural landscape this habitat forms a succession stage between grasslands and forest that can be maintained by extensive grazing. A problem is that due to land abandonment the habitat is increasing in large parts of Europe, causing a decrease of grasslands and in a longer time succession towards forest. In the more intensive agricultural landscapes of Northwestern Europe hedges of this habitat form an important refuge and food source for animals and plants. Where hedges have been removed over large scales restoration should be considered, together with some shrub management for long-term, sustainable conservation.

Conservation Status:
Only a small part of the habitat is represented by one Annex 1-type.
Annex 1 types:
40A0: BLS U1, CON U1, PAN U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat can recover relatively easy (10-20 yrs), but for reaching a higher diversity of shrub species longer time periods may be required (50 yrs or more).

Summary:
This habitat comprises inland scrub dominated by thorny shrubs and small trees occurring throughout the temperate and submediterranean lowlands and foothills of Europe, more locally in dry and rocky mountain localities.  It is found mostly on dry to mesic, well-drained, relatively base-rich and poor to moderately nutrient-rich soils and is generally a secondary vegetation type, a replacement for or successional stage on the way to mesic broadleaved forests. Typical of forest edges and clearings, abandoned pastures and more or less permanent features like hedgerows, it provides food and shelter for invertebrates, small mammals and birds. Increasing in many places as a result of abandonment of traditional land use, it is itself seen as a threat to species-rich grasslands and progresses, without interruption, to forest.

References:
Arnáiz, C. 1983. Esquema sintaxonómico de las comunidades del orden Prunetalia spinosae R. Tüxen 1952 en la Península Ibérica. Colloques Phytosociologiques 8: 23–31.
Bardat, J., Bioret, F., Botineau, M., Boullet, V., Delpech, R., Géhu, J.-M., Haury, J., Lacoste, A., Rameau, J.-C., Royer, J.-M., Roux, G. & Touffet, J. 2004. Prodrome des végétations de France. Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, FR.
ÄŒarni, A. 1998. Mantle vegetation in submediterranean Slovenia. Itinera Geobotanica 11: 291–297.
De Foucault, B. & Julve, P. 2001. Syntaxonomie der Strauchgesellschaften der Rhamno catharticae-Prunetea spinosae Rivas Goday & Borja-Carbonell 1961 in Europa. Verhandlungen der Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Österreich 138: 177–243.
Géhu, J.-M., de Foucault, B. & Delelis-Dusollier, A. 1983 ('1979'). Essai sur un schéma synsystématique des végétations arbustives preforestières de l'Europe occidentale. Colloques Phytosociologiques 8: 463–479.
Oberdorfer, E. 1987. Süddeutsche Wald- und Gebüschgesellschaften im europäischen Rahmen. Tuexenia 7: 459–468.
Rodwell, J.S. (ed.) 1991. British plant communities. Vol. 1. Woodlands and scrub. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Schwabe, A. 1989. Gebüsche und Staudensäume in der Natur- und Kulturlandschaft und ihre ökologische Bedeutung. Berichte der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft im Freiburg i. Breisgau 77–78: 99–130.
Weber, H.E. 1997. Hecken und Gebüsche in den Kulturlandschaften Europas – Pflanzensoziologische Dokumentation als Basis von Schutzmaßnahmen. Berichte der Reinhold-Tüxen-Gesellschaft 9: 75–106.

Criterion A Text:
Trend calculation based on data from 13 EU countries and 2 countries outside the EU, covering approximately 90% of the surface of the habitat. Almost no (quantitative) data has been reported on future trends and long historical trends. The reported data is too poor for assessing criteria A2a, A2b and A3.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO, AOO and number of locations of the habitat are much larger than the thresholds for criteria B1, B2 and B3.

Criterion C/D Text:
The extent and severity of quality decline have been calculated using territorial data of 13 EU countries and 2 additional countries from outside the EU. The data is estimated to cover 75-80% of the surface of the thorn scrub. The reported data on quality decline refers both to abiotic and biotic declines; it is not possible to separate between these. Almost no data (and no quantitative data at all) has been reported on future trends in quality or long-historical trends in quality.

Synthesis:
The quantitative data lead to the overall conclusion of Least Concern (LC) for the EU28 and the EU28+, for the criteria relating to trends in quality and trends in quantity, even though there is an overal negative trend in quality in most of the countries. In the north-west of the range the habitat is more threatened than in the more continental and submediterranean regions.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
For Northwestern Europe a semi-natural subhabitat 'hedge rows' may be distinguished and assessed separately, as the data shows that the thorn scrub is much more threatened in this Atlantic part of Europe than elsewhere.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Janssen
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, G. Buffa, J. Bölöni, J.A. Campos, J. Capelo, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, R. Delarze, M. Dimitrov, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, R. Haveman, J. Janssen, Z. KÄ…cki, K.J. Kirby, C. Marcenò, D. Paelinckx, D. Paternoster, P. Perrin, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, S. Sciandrello, J. Šibík, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, L. Wibail
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Type Name:
C1.1b Permanent oligotrophic to mesotrophic waterbody with soft-water species

Habitat Description:
Oligotrophic to mesotrophic waters of sandy plains and rocky substrates (granites, gravel, stones, till, moraine, clay) containing few minerals. Over large parts of the lake the sediment is covered by a thin layer of detritus and accumulation of mud is sparse. The water layer is carbon deficient and poorly buffered (low alkalinity). The water is weakly acid to circumneutral. Concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous are low and in the oligotrophic to mesotrophic range. The water is clear, sometimes humic (brown) with a low concentration of chlorophyll. The vegetation is low to moderate in species diversity and is dominated by soft-water species. This soft-water vegetation consists mainly of communities dominated by the isoetid species Plantago uniflora and other soft-water species with other growth forms like Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Potamogeton polygonifolius and P. gramineus. Several soft-water species including Baldellia ranunculoides subsp. ranunculoides, B. ranunculoides subsp. repens and Luronium natans are atlantic and are absent from the boreal zone. In the temperate Atlantic zone boreal and atlantic species overlap. As a consequence, soft-water lakes are relatively richer in species in the temperate atlantic zone. Similar habitats in coastal dune slacks, with Plantago uniflora (= Littorella uniflora) as characteristic species, are considered part of habitat B1.8a. In soft-water lakes the vegetated layer extends from the littoral to lower parts of the sub-littoral zone. The littoral zone has fluctuating water levels and the littoral vegetation might be semi-permanent in the summer period. The vegetation and its substrate are mechanically influenced by water movement, ice sheets and wind exposition. Many large lakes in northern Europe represent this type or the more oligotrophic type C1.1a in terms of water chemistry and abundant isoetid vegetation. Occurrence and abundance of other growth forms (elodeids, aquatic mosses, sometimes also Nitella stands, nymphaeids and helophytes) vary according to shore and bottom material, topography, exposition and lake area exposed to wind and subsurface currents. Exposed shores have sparse stands of aquatic vegetation, in sheltered bays vegetation has clear zonation, but the stands are still open. The lower limit of submerged vegetation reaches typically the depth of 3-6 meters, sometimes close to 10 meters. Due to postglacial history deeper lakes host some glacial relict crustaceans and vertebrates, including salmonid fish and a critically endangered fresh water seal (Pusa hispida subsp. saimensis). Large lakes have diverse waterfowl populations and are important parts of migration routes. This habitat type must not be confused with oligotrophic to mesotrophic ponds only periodically flooded, which is instead typical of the Mediterranean area and dominated by isoetid species of Isoëtetalia and Nano-Cyperetalia (class Isoëto-Nanojuncetea). The vegetation of these habitats is composed of a contribution of annual and ephemeral species. These drier habitats are not part of the habitat described here, but belong to types C1.6b "Mediterranean temporary waters" and C3.5b "Periodically exposed shores with stable, mainly mesotrophic sediments with pioneer and ephemeral vegetation".
Indicators of good quality:
Large stands of soft-water species
Absence or very low abundance of peat mosses
Absence or very low abundance of water plants from eutrophic and alkaline waters
Low abundance of water plants with large floating leaves (Nymphaeids) or emergent plants (e.g. Phragmites australis, Typha spp., Equisetum fluviatile, Carex spp.)
Long-term habitat stability, with no rapid successional trends (e.g. no trends in acidification or eutrophication)
Low concentrations of nutrients and chlorophyll (approximately P < 40 μg/L and chlorophyll < 5 μg/L)
pH weakly acid to circumneutral ( pH 5.5 - 7.5)
Alkalinity 0.1 – 2 meq/L
Thin layer of detritus (no accumulation of organic mud) over large parts of the lake
Occurrence of conspicuous populations of salmonid fish, but population of roach (Rutilus rutilus) and other Cyprinidae low

Note: Chemical and physical parameters are only indicative, they may change in different geographical area and climatic conditions.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Boreo-atlantic species: Plantago uniflora (=Littorella uniflora), Lobelia dortmanna, Isoëtes echinospora, I. lacustris, Eleocharis acicularis, E. multicaulis, E. palustris, Juncus bulbosus, Lycopodiella inundata, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Ranunculus flammula, R. reptans, Sparganium angustifolium, S. gramineum, Subularia aquatica, Potamogeton gramineus, P. polygonifolius, Samolus valerandi, Callitriche hamulata, C. palustris; Atlantic species: Eleogiton fluitans, Pilularia globulifera, Baldellia ranunculoides subsp. ranunculoides, B. Baldellia ranunculoides subsp. repens, Luronium natans, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Ranunculus ololeucos, Deschampsia setacea; Mediterranean-atlantic species: Antinoria agrostidea, Baldellia alpestris, Juncus heterophyllus, J. emmanuelis
Macroalgae: Nitella opaca, N. flexilis, N. transluncens
Mosses: Fontinalis spp. (e.g. Fontinalis hypnoides, F. antipyretica), Fossombronia foveolata, Riccardia spp., Scapania spp., Warnstorfia exannulata, W. procera, W. trichophylla, Scorpidium scorpioides, Calliergon megalophyllum
Phytoplankton: Chrysophyceae; Bambusina borreri, Closterium lunula, Desmidium swartzii, Euastrum binale var. gutwinskii, E. oblongum, Micrasterias rotata, M. truncata, Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii, Spondylosium pulchellum, Staurodesmus convergens, Tetmemorus granulatus, Xanthidium antilopaeum.
Phytobenthos: Eunotia rhomboidea, E. incisa, Tabellaria flocculosa, T. binalis, Navicula heimansii, Anomoeoneis vitrea.
Fauna: Macroinvertebrates: Glaenocorisa propinqua, Sigara scotti, Arctocorisa germari; Diptera: Dicrotendipes tritomus, Psectrocladius psilopterus, Parakiefferiella bathophila, Pagastiella orophila; Chaoborus flavicans, Hygrotus novemlineatus; Odonata: Lestes dryas; Trichoptera: Molanna albicans; Amphipoda: Gammarus lacustris, Gammaracanthus lacustris; Mysida: Mysis relicta.; In the sediments Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, Spirosperma ferox, Potamothrix hammoniensis.
Vertebrates: Fish: Salmonidae (e.g. Coregonus spp., Salmo spp., Salvelinus spp., Thymallus spp.), Osmerus eperlanus, Lota lota, Sander lucioperca, Perca fluviatilis, Esox Lucius; Birds: Gavia arctica, G. stellata, Anas spp., Aythya spp., Bucephala clangula, Larus fuscus, Mergus merganser, M. serrator, M. albellus, Melanitta nigra, Pandion haliaetus; Mammals: Lutra lutra, Pusa hispida subsp. saimensis (in Finland).

Classification:
EUNIS:
C1.1 Permanent oligotrophic lakes, ponds and pools
C1.2 Permanent mesotrophic lakes, ponds and pools
EuroVegChecklist:
Littorellion uniflorae Koch ex Klika 1935
Hyperico elodis-Sparganion Br.-Bl. et Tx. ex Oberd. 1957
Nitellion flexilis Krause 1969
Annex 1:
3120 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals generally on sandy soils of the West Mediterranean with Isoetes spp.
3130 Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters with vegetation of the Littorelletea uniflorae and/or of the Isoëto-Nanojuncetea
Emerald:
C.1.1 Permanent oligotrophic lakes, ponds and pools
C3.4 Species-poor beds of low-growing water-fringing or amphibious vegetation
MAES-2:
Rivers and lakes
IUCN:
5.5 Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha)
5.7 Permanent freshwater marshes and pools (under 8 ha)
Water Framework Directive:
IC 101
LCB3

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat C1.1b Permanent oligotrophic to mesotrophic waters with soft-water species, is characteristic of the Boreo-Atlantic region of Europe. In this habitat Boreal and Atlantic soft-water species overlap in their distribution range contributing to a relatively rich soft-water habitat. In the Boreal region by far the largest area is found. In the Atlantic region a combination of plant species with a boreal distribution and species with an Atlantic distribution results in the highest diversity.

Map Description:
The map is incomplete with data gaps filled by potential data, based on Art17 (HT3130). Data sources: EVA, GBIF, NAT and Art17 for potential.

Comment EU28+:
For EU28+ only data from Switzerland, Norway and Bosnie Herzegovina are available.

Trends in Quantity:
For the EU 28 the recent trends in quantity vary from stable to a decrease. For countries outside the EU 28 this information is unknown.

Trends in Quality:
The overall trend in quality is a decrease.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
80-90% of the area lies within the EU: about 28000 km2, EU 28+ about 31000 km2. Switzerland and Norway are outside the EU 28 having this type available. Especially Norway contributes to the EU 28+ area of this type. We have roughly estimated 10000 km2 lakes in Norway of which ca. 30% might be oligo- to mesotrophic (i.e. 3000 km2).

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat currently does not have a small natural range, however the decline is still going on. There is a future trend of decline mainly due to climate change and eutrophication in Central and Southern Europe.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is not restricted by area in Scandinavia, however it is in Central and Southern Europe. So the picture differs between those two parts of Europe.

Pressures and Threats:
In central Europe land use is the main pressure, including land change, agriculture and intensification of agriculture and changed hydorlogies. In Northern Europe hydraulic changes are the dominating pressure.

Conservation and Management:
The main current approaches to conservation, management and restoration of this habitat are: 1. Restore the hydrology; 2. Limit nutrient input from surrounding agricultural areas; 3. Restore the sediment conditions and remove organic layers; 4. Remove dominating shore vegetation like reed beds and shrubs.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
3120: ATL U2, MED U1
3130: ALP FV, ATL U1, BLS FV, BOR U1, CON U2, MED U1, PAN U1, STE U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Experience from North-Western Atlantic Europe has shown that the vegetation can be restored from the diaspores left in the sediment. Restoration can be achieved within a period of 2-5 years.

Summary:
This habitat includes oligotrophic to mesotrophic soft water of sandy plains and rocky substrates, mainly in Scandinavia and the north-western Atlantic and subatlantic region. The water is weakly acid to circumneutral, mesotrophic to oligotrophic, clear or brown.  The vegetation which extends from the shallows to the lower sub-littoral, is only moderately diverse, moreso in the Atlantic region, and dominated by isoetids, Littorella and soft-water pondweeds. It is affected by water movement, ice and wind. Eutrophication and modified hydrology are reported as the main continuing threats to quality, with climate change in the future. Restoration measures include restoring the hydrology, limiting the input of nutrients, removing organic layers and restoring the buffering capacity.

References:
Andersen, T., Pedersen, O., Andersen, F.Ø, 2005. Nutrient concentrations in a Littorella uniflora community at higher CO2 concentrations and reduced light intensities. Freshwater Biology, 50 (7), pp. 1178-1189.
Arts, G.H.P. 2002. Deterioration of Altlantic soft-water macrophyte communities by acidification, eutrophication and alkalinisation. Aquat. Bot. 1566: 1-21.
Arts, G.H.P. & den Hartog, C. 1990. Phytogeographical aspects of the West European soft-water macrophyte flora. Acta botanica neerlandica, 39, 369-378.
Berg, C., Dengler, J., Abdank, A., Isermann, M. 2004. De Pflanzengesellschaften Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns un ihre Gefährdung. Textband. 606 pages. Landesamt für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Geologie Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Weissdorn-Verlag Jena.
Carlson, R.E. 1977. A trophic state index for lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22:2 361--369.
Dierssen, K. 1996. Vegetation Nordeuropas. 838 pp., 112 tables.
Mäkirinta, U. 1978. Die Pflanzensoziologische Gliederung der Wasservegetation im See Kukkia, Südfinnland. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis. Ser A. 75 (Biologica 5), 157 pp.
Rintanen, T. 1982. Botanical lake types in Finnish Lapland. Annales Botanici Fennici 19: 247-274.

Criterion A Text:
The trend in quantity has been calculated based on quantitative data from 22 countries, of which only Switzerland and Bosnia & Herzegovina are outside the EU28. Many countries report negative trends, in some cases up to 80/90% decrease. However the countries with by far the largest area (Sweden, Finland) report stable areas, and these figures largely influence the overall European trend, which is only slightly negative. Some countries expect negative trends in the future as well, partly due to climate change. However too few data are available for assessing criterion A2a or A2b. Also long-time historical data is scarce, and as a result no assessment is carried out for criterion A3.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has a large distribution over Europe, and the AOO, EOO and number of locations are all far beyond the thresholds for criteria under B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The extent of degradation of this habitat over Europe is 3% with a severity of 52% both for EU 28 and EU28+. These figures have been calculated based on 16 countries for EU 28 and 18 countries for EU 28+. The low value for affected extent is strongly influenced by Finland, for which country an improve in quality has been reported; Finland holds by far the largest area of the habitat. If the Scandinavian countries would be left out of the calculation, the available data would result in a negatively affected extent of 37% with a severity of 52% (both for EU 28 and EU 28+). These figures are very close to the thresholds for the red list category Vulnerable, and therefore would lead to the category Near Threatened. However, Finland included, the conclusion is Least Concenr (LC). The reported trends in quality are both for abiotic and biotic conditions, and therefore no split in criteria C or D has been made. Very little data has been reported on future or long-time historical trends in quality.

Synthesis:
This habitat reaches the qualification of Least Concern (LC) for the whole of Europe, due to a widespread distribution and relatively small declines in quality and qauntity over the last 50 years. However, the overall assessment is strongly influenced by the countries having the largest area of this soft-water habitat, Finland and Sweden, where the habitat is in rather good condition. For the rest of Europe the habitat qualifies as Near Threatened (NT) because of a strong decline in quality, and also declines in area are much larger with some countries reporting 90% decline. Quantitative and qualitative data are missing for Norway and Iceland, but based on some assumptions a similar score is reached for the EU28+ as for EU28.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The situation of this habitat is very different in the northern countries (Scandinavia, where the habitat occupies its largest area) compared to the countries in the north-western Atlantic region (The Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, United Kingdom, Irel

Contributors:
Habitat description: G. Arts
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, G. Arts, S. Assini, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, S. Bell, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Brophy, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, R. Delarze, L. Denys, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G.P. Giusso Del Galdo, R. Hall, J. Janssen, N. Juvan, K. Keulen, T. Kontula, W. van Landuyt, H. Mäemets, C. Marcenò, A. Mikolajczak, J.A. Molina, J. Packet, D. Paelinckx, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, J. Šibík, A. Ssymank, K. Šumberová , H. Toivonen, R. Tzonev, D. Viciani, E. von Wachenfeldt
Working Group Freshwater Habitats: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen


Habitat Type Name:
D2.2b Relict mire of Mediterranean mountains

Habitat Description:
Oligo- to mesotrophic mires of the montane and subalpine belts of Mediterranean mountains of the High Atlas (Morocco), Sierra Nevada and Corse, and of high mountains (above 1900 m altitude) of the Western Balkan peninsula. These mires occur on the edges of glacial lakes and around mountain streams, forming waterlogged ‘blankets’ in relatively flat areas with impermeable soils, where a peat layer has developed on siliceous bedrocks. The type is differentiated from mires and grasslands with a similar physiognomy in the Alps, Pyrenees and rest of the Balkan by the presence and dominance of narrow-endemic relict species, and by the lower frequency of Sphagnum species. The sites of this habitat in the South-European mountains are characterised by relative cold and humid conditions, creating a distinct green habitat in a dry landscape. Water supply and temperature vary relatively little during the year, compared to surrounding habitats. In the high mountains of the Balkan this habitat is covered by snow most of the year.
The mires are bordered by streams, springs and lakes on the lower edges, and by moist grasslands with Nardus stricta (E3.2b) on the drier edges. The habitat is dominated by Carex nigra ssp. intricata in the Sierra Nevada and Corse, and by Carex nigra var. macedonica in the Balkan. In Spain also Festuca frigida may dominate, while in Corse along streams Trichophorum cespitosum may be dominant. Common species in both Mediterranean regions are Carex echinata, Carex nevadensis, Agrostis canina and Viola palustris. Different characteristic endemic species  are found in the different regions. For several genera, vicariant endemic species are found in the different mountain regions. Such species are considered tertiary relicts. Examples in these mires are Pinguicula nevadensis, Pinguicula corsica and Pinguicula balcanica, and also Narthecium reverchonii (Corse) and Narthecium scardicum (Balkan). Some of the characteristic species also grow outside the mires, like Pinguicula corsica and Narthecium reverchonii along waterfalls on wet rocks. Together with the adjacent Nardus grasslands of E3.2b, these conspicuous habitats are called Pozzines in Corse and Borreguiles in the Sierra Nevada.
Indicators of good quality:
In wet conditions these grasslands are relatively stable. Desiccation causes a succession towards Nardus grasslands of E3.2b. Abandonment leads to the development of tall herb vegetation. The type may expand slowly by vegetation succession in open water. Indicators of good quality are:
presence of endemic species
high vegetation cover
low cover of (encroaching) tall herbs and shrubs
situated in a gradient from water to drier grassland

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: 
Corsica: Agrostis canina, Bellis bernardii,Bellium nivale  Carex echinata, Carex nevadensis, Carex nigra ssp intricata, Carex ovalis, Carex pallescens, Danthonia decumbens, Drosera rotundifolia, Juncus requienii,  Pinguicula corsica, Poa supina, Polygala serpyllifolia, Potentilla anglica ssp. nesogenes, Potentilla erecta, Ranunculus cordiger, Trichophorum cespitosum (dom.), Viola palustris.
Sierra Nevada : Agrostis canina ssp. granatensis, Carex echinata, Carex nevadensis, Carex nigra ssp intricata, Eleocharis quinqueflora, Festuca frigida, Gentiana pneumonanthe ssp. depressa, juncus alpestris, Leontodon microcephalus,  Pinguicula nevadensis, Ranunculus angustifolius ssp. alismoides, Veronica turbicola, Viola palustris.
Balkan: Calicocorsus stipitatus (=Wilemetia stipitata), Carex bulgarica, Carex nigra var. macedonica (= C. macedonica), Cirsium heterotrichum, Crocus veluchensis, Dactylorhiza cordigera subsp. bosniaca, Gentiana pyrenaica, Gentianella bulgarica, Leontodon riloensis, Narthecium scardicum, Pinguicula balcanica, Plantago gentianoides, Primula deorum, P. farinosa subsp. exigua, Gymnadenia (Pseudorchis) frivaldii, Silene asterias (in Bulgaria often growing in Calthion palustris), Soldanella pindicola.

Classification:
Annex 1:
No clear relationship with Annex I-types exists. In France this habitat type has been related to type 6170, in Spain to 6160. The distinction of a separate Natura 2000 habitat type next to these two would be preferable, possibly in combination with the adjacent moist grasslands of E3.2b.
EuroVegChecklist:
Bellidio-Bellion nivalis Gamisans 1975  (= Caricion intricatae Quézel 1953)
Festucion frigidae Rivas-Mart. et al. 2002
Narthecion scardici Lakušic 1970
Emerald:
D2.226 Peri-Danubian black-white-star sedge fens
MAES:
Wetlands
IUCN:
5.4. Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
These mires are typical of Mediterranean mountains as they contain many relict species which survived here during the Ice ages and developed as a separate species due to isolation.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete in its range, but data gaps may exist on the Balkan in Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. Data sources: EVA, NAT, EXP, LIT.

Trends in Quantity:
There is too few data to calculate average European trends, especially for the EU28+. However, the reported trends are all inbetween 0 to 10% decline, and therefore the overall trend is assessed to be about 5-10% decline, both for the EU28 as for EU28+.

Trends in Quality:
Although few quantitative data are available, overall the countries report small declines in quality (both in extend affected and in severity).

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
About 60%. Besides the occurrences given in the distribution map, the habitat is also present in the High Atlas of Marocco. The distribution on the Balkan (EU28+ countres) is an underestimation due to lack of data.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The range is relatively large, even when the habitat occurs in few locations within that range.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat always occurs in relatively small patches, where specific ecological conditions are met.

Pressures and Threats:
The pressures reported from different countries can be summarised under the categories changes in hydrology (incl. drainage), human pressures (fore example increasing infrastructures related to ski practices, and other pressure from tourism and recreation), pollution of surface water, succession, and climate change.

Conservation and Management:
The relict mires are very fragile habitats, being dependent on wet conditions in a dry climate. The main conservation need is the maintanance of the hydrological functioning and the prevention of disturbance by human activities. A strict legal protection would help a lot, and therefore distinction as a separate mire type under the Habitat's Directive is also needed. As there are many narrow endemic species in this habitat, soem specific restoration measures for species may be applicable.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
This is a fragile habitat, which is likely to need a long term period for recovery.

Summary:
In the montane and sub-alpine belts of the Spanish Sierra Nevada, Corsica, and the Western Balkan peninsula (and also the High Atlas of Morocco), this type of oligo- to mesotrophic mire occurs on the waterlogged margins of glacial lakes and around streams. It develops on blankets of thin peat over siliceous bedrocks, kept constantly wet and cool (covered by snow in the high Balkan mountains for much of the year) and providing a splash of green in prevailingly dry landscapes. The vegetation is dominated by small sedges or graminoids often with distinctive endemics, some of them considered Tertiary relics. Being highly fragile, the habitat is vulnerable to any damage to the hydrological system and has been subject to tourist infrastructure development. Climate warming would obviously threaten its dependence of cold, wet conditions. Strict legal protection is necessary to ensure its survival.

References:
Gamisans, J. (1977). La végétation des montagnes corses, II. Phytocoenologia 4(1) : 35-131.
Rivas-Martínez, S., T.E. Díaz, F. Fernández-González, J. Izco, J. Loidi, M. Lousã & Á. Penas (2002). Vascular plant communities of Spain and Portugal. Addenda to the syntaxonomical checklist of 2001. Itinera Geobotanica 15(1-2): 5-922.
Lakušic, R. (1970). Die Vegetation der südöstlichen Dinariden. Vegetatio 21: 321-373.
Quezel, P. (1953). Contribution á l’étude phytosociologique et géobotanique de la Sierra Nevada. Mem. Soc. Brot. (Coimbra) 9: 5-77

Criterion A Text:
The overall trend for both EU28 and EU28+ countries is between 5 and 10%.

Criterion B Text:
The AOO for the EU28 is below the threshold for criterion B. For the EU28+ the AOO is probably an underestimation due to data gaps in the Balkan countries, and it is likely that the AOO for EU28+ is slightly larger than 50. Climate change is assumed to be a serious threat for the near future, as changes in precipitation and temperature may cause a decline in quality or quantity in the next decades.

Criterion C/D Text:
The data are insufficient for a quantitative assessment of changes in quality, but the overall negative decline is small both in extend affected and severity of decline. It is unknown what changes may be caused by climate change in the future, but it may turn out to be a serious threat.

Synthesis:
Relatively few quantitative data on trends in quality and quantity are available, but the information provided indicates relatively small declines in these parameters. However, overall the habitat is assessed to be Vulnerable (VU) within the EU28, because of the small distribution area (AOO) in combination with expected changes in hydrological functioning as a result of climate change (changes in temperature and precipitation patterns). For the EU28+ the AOO is slightly higher, resulting in the category Near Threatened (NT). There is no quantitative data or model available for future trends, but it would be worth to carry out a model for this restricted and fragile habitat.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
It is clear from the distribution that three different sub-habitats can be distinguished with a different group of endemic species: one for the Sierra Nevada, one for Corsica and one for the Balkan peninsula.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Janssen
Territorial data: P. Ivanov, V. Matevski, F. Millaku, J.A. Molina, J. Reymann
Working Group Mires & bogs: C. Bita-Nicolae, M. Hájek, F. Jansen, T. Tahvanainen


Habitat Type Name:
C1.5 Permanent inland saline and brackish waterbody

Habitat Description:
This habitat type includes non-coastal brackish, saline or hypersaline lakes, ponds or pools. These water bodies may have been directly related to the sea in the past, but are currently separated from any sea influence. They develop in arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, in endorheic drainage basins (which are not connected to other water bodies such as rivers, and therefore the water does not drain to the sea), like in the Pannonian Basin or in smaller basins in the Mediterranean area. In these conditions permanent or temporary lakes become saline due to evaporation that concentrates dissolved salts that either have been introduced by rainwater or have been caught from substrata within the drainage basin. This habitat also includes saline intermittently flowing Mediterranean rivers, running on substrata with high salt content. These watercourses frequently dry out in summer, leaving shallow pools colonized by aquatic halophytes. Salinity and concentrations of chloride may vary from brackish to hypersaline water, depending on rain fall, evaporation rate and the basin substrate. In general brackish waters comply to a minimum salinity of 0.5‰. The water level may vary as well and can have high seasonal fluctuations up to the complete drying out in summer in the most arid and warm areas of Europe. Water is alkaline and highly buffered by bicarbonate (high alkalinity). Phosphorus- and sulphate concentrations can be relatively high (for submerged macrophyte vegetation), which may be related to high sulphur concentration in the sediment. The habitat represents a dynamic environment due to the variations in water quality and quantity as mentioned above. Species composition is largely determined by the presence of brackish water and the variability in salinity.
he vegetation growing in this habitat type is characterized by halophytes adapted to these circumstances. In general, the species composition is poor and the vegetation often consists of monospecific communities. Characteristic halophytes are Najas marina, N. minor, Ruppia maritima, Batrachium (=Ranunculus) baudotii and Zannichellia palustris, Z. pedunculata, Z. obtusifolia. Besides vascular plants, some stonewort are characteristic species, like Tolypella nidifica, Chara canescens, Ch. baltica, Ch. aspera, Ch. intermedia and Ch. vulgaris. Species with a broad habitat range may extend to these brackish waters, like Lemna spp. (L. gibba, L. minor, L. trisulca), Potamogeton spp. (P. crispus, P. natans, P. pectinatus), Callitriche spp. (C. lenisulca, C. stagnalis, C. truncate subsp. fimbriata), Ceratophyllum demersum, Myriophyllum spicatum, Batrachium spp., and Nymphae alba.
The shores of these saline water bodies are characterized by emergent vegetation dominated by macrophytes tolerant to brackish water, such as Phragmites australis, Scirpus tabernaemontani, Bolboschoenus maritimus, Typha laxmannii, Cladium mariscus and Carex melanostachya. However, such shore communities are included in habitat C5.4. Similar communities in coastal dune slacks are included under the habitats B1.8a or B1.8b. The habitat is important for several species of invertebrates and forms a feeding ground for birds. Because salt and ion concentrations are dependent on the evaporation rate, this habitat type is strongly related to climatic conditions. Therefore it is sensitive to climate change. Within Europe this habitat is rare. The largest sites are found in the Pannonian basin, for example the Neusiedler See.
Indicators of good quality:
The following characteristics may be used as indicators of a good quality:
Minimum salinity around 0.5 ‰
Natural high electrical conductivity of the water
No alteration of the natural salinity range
Aquatic vegetation and species characteristic of brackish water
Absence of overgrowing with shrubs and trees
No signs of eutrophication (no dominance of algae such as Cladophora sp., Enteromorpha sp., Vaucheria sp.)
No indicator of negative anthropogenic influence (e.g. regulation of the water level, chemical pollution)

Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Althenia filiformis, Althenia orientalis, Callitriche lenisulca, Callitriche stagnalis, Callitriche truncate subs. fimbriata, Myriophyllum spicatum, Najas minor, Najas marina, Potamogeton pectinatus, Ranunculus baudotii (=Batrachium baudotii), Ranunculus polyphyllus, Ruppia cirrhosa, Ruppia drepanensis, Ruppia maritima, Zannichellia palustris, Zannichellia obtusifolia, Zannichellia pedicellatae 
Macro-algae: Ceramium diaphanum, Ceramium rubrum, Chaetomorpha linum, Chara aspera , Chara baltica, Chara canescens, Chara connivens, Chara galioides, Chara horrida, Chara intermedia, Chara tomentosa, Cladophora fracta, Enteromorpha intestinalis, Lamprothamnium papulosum, Tolypella nidifica, Tolypella hispanica, Tolypella salina, Ulva sp., Vaucheria sp. 
Fauna Macroinvertebrates: Gammarus duebeni, Cordylophora caspia, Palaemonetes varians, Artemia spp, Daphnia magna, Alona elegans, Lestes macrostigma, Vertebrates: Aphanius fasciatus

Classification:
EUNIS:
C1.5 Permanent inland saline and brackish waters
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Charion canescentis Krausch 1964
Zannichellion pedicellatae Schaminée et al. 1990
Ranunculion aquatilis Passarge 1964
Ruppion maritimae Br.-Bl. ex Westhoff in Bennema et al. 1943
Annex 1:
-
Emerald:
C1.5 Permanent inland saline and brackish lakes, ponds and pools
C1.66 Temporary inland saline and brackish waters
MAES:
Rivers and lakes
IUCN:
5.16.  Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat develops mainly in arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, in endorheic drainage basins (not connected to other water bodies) like the Pannonian Basin or minor basins in the Mediterranean area where salt is present due to past geomorphological processes.

Map Description:
Map with many data gaps. AOO is probably much larger. Data sources: NAT, LIT, EXP, EVA.

Trends in Quantity:
The estimated area based on 8 countries is 149,5 sq. km, including 135 sq. km from Austria (Neusiedlersee and smaller alkaline lakes in the surrounding). The average trend in quantity over 50 years based on data from 7 countries is -43%, excluding Austrian data. Austrian data has some uncertainty in it. For the Neusiedlersee a 5% decline is estimated since 1950, but much larger declines occurred (due to encroachment of reed beds) in the period 1910-1950 (after the stabilization of the water table after the construction of a canal in 1910). However, in the last 50 years much larger area declines occurred in surrounding alkaline lakes, of which many are semi-permanent. If these lakes are including, the overall trend over 50 years is about -20% for Austria.
Historical quantitative declines are calculated to be larger than -70% based on data from 3 countries only (Hungary, Germany and Spain), covering less than 10% of the area. With an additional large decline in the Neusiedersee in the period 1910-1950 (exact figures unknown), the historical negative trend is estimated to be between 30 and 50%. Future trends are an expected further decrease.

Trends in Quality:
Extent of degradation is estimated at 20% with a severity of 26% based on data from 5 countries, including Austria (and therefore covering more than 90% of the area). Current trends are considered as still moderate or slightly decreasing. Two experts provided projections for future with expected decreasing trends.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
<5%. The percentage of the current distribution of this habitat in Europe relative to the worldwide distribution is considered to be lower than the land occupied by Europe on earth (3%). Large surface areas of this habitat are found in regions with arid climate, notably in North-Africa (Chotts, Sebkha), South-Africa, North America (NW), South-America (West), Asia, Australia (NE).

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a large natural range (far above 50,000 Km2), while it has suffered a decline in area over the past 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This aquatic habitat has been directly or indirectly related to the sea in the (far) past and is mainly found in endorheic drainage basins under arid or semi-arid climatic conditions, and besides in areas where relict concentrations of salt are present

Pressures and Threats:
Land reclamation for expansion of agricultural and urban areas is probably responsible for most of the historical decline in inland saline or brackish water vegetation in Europe. Declines over the last decades are mostly associated with human induced changes in hydraulic conditions: modification of catchment areas or changes in water allocation will translate into reduced hydroperiod leading potentially to the disappearance of submerged macrophytes, while input of freshwater to serve human uses such as waterfowl hunting or ecotourism will translate into increased flooding and dominance of aquaic species adapted to permanent and less saline conditions (eg. Potamogeton pectinatus, Myriophyllum spicatum).

Conservation and Management:
Most important conservation measures are: (1) avoidance of input of freshwater that modifies water salinity and prevents summer dry periods, and (2) avoidance of embankment, modification of catchment area or water derivation, that would result in absence of flooding (which can be compensated by minimal water input in some cases).

Conservation Status:
Not related to any Annex 1 habitat type.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat can be restored relatively quickly if adequate hydroperiods can be restored while maintaining water conductivity above the 0.5 ‰ threshold. Depending on the situation, this can be done through indirect intervention (eg by restoring the natural functioning of catchment area) or naturally (by preventing artificial water inputs).

Summary:
This habitat includes the submerged vegetation of non-coastal brackish, saline or hypersaline lakes, ponds or pools that have developed in arid and semi-arid conditions as in the Pannonian basin and, more locally, the Mediterranean region where intermittent saline water courses also occur. Salinity and chloride content vary according to rainfall, evaporation and the character of the substrate which affects the character of the predominantly halophytic vegetation and associated invertebrates which provide food for birds. Already often naturally fragmented, the habitat has suffered over the last decades from anthropogenic changes in hydrology. Conservation needs maintenance of hydrology and mitigation of fresh water input.

References:
AuniÅ†š, A. (ed) et al., 2013. European Union. Protected habitats in Latvia. Interpretation manual, 2nd edition. P. 32-35.
Berg, C., Dengler, J., Abdank, A., Isermann, M, 2004. De Pflanzengesellschaften Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns un ihre Gefährdung. Textband. 606 pages. Landesamt für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Geologie Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Weissdorn-Verlag Jena. P. 86-92.
Weeda et al., 2000. Atlas van plantengemeenschappen in Nederland. Deel 1. Wateren, moerassen en natte heiden. KNNV Uitgeverij, Utrecht.

Criterion A Text:
The habitat has suffered an average -22% decrease over the last 50 years according to national experts from 8 countries, including data for the Neusiedlersee, the largest brackish lake in Europe. The decline outside Austria is much larger, on average -44 to -53% (indicating Vulnerable levels) based on data from 7 countries, but covering less than 10% of the area. Areas are further expected to decrease for 5 countries, quantified at -5% to -20% by experts from two countries. Historical quantitative trends were calculated at -72 to -74% based on data from only 3 countries, lacking Austrian data. However, also in the Neusiedlersee large declines in brackish water bodies occurred in the period 1910-1950, the average historical decline is estimated to be between 30 and 50%, qualifying this habitat for the Near Threatened (NT) category.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO and number of locations of the habitat are very large, but the AOO is relatively restricted, but above the threshold for Near Threatened under criterion B2.

Criterion C/D Text:
Reduction in quality since 1950-1970 is based on estimates given by territorial experts from 5 countries, including Austria (covering more than 95% of the area). Qualitative future trends are expected to decrease (2 countries). No estimates have been provided regarding historical trends. Reduction in quality is attributed to abiotic conditions only because it is moslty related to changes in hydraulic conditions.

Synthesis:
Quantitative data on trend in area and quality are strongly dominated by information about the largest saline lake in Europe, the Neusiedlersee in Austria. There has been a negative trend in the waterbody of this lake due to drainage and reed bed encroachment, especially in the period 1910-1950. In seven other countries the average trend since 1950 is a decline of about 40/50% of the area, but this figure relates to less than 10% of the total area. Small area declines in this period in Austria lead to an average European value close to the threshold for Near Threatened under criterion A1. The trends in quality over the same period are relatively small. The habitat qualifies however as Near Threatened (NT) due to its historical decline in area (since 1900), for which quantitative figures are not known, but which is estimated to be between 30 and 50%.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat may be further divided into permanent and temporary saline waterbodies.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: G. Arts
Territorial data: G. Arts, J. Brophy,  P. Finck, G. Giusso Del Galdo, J. Janssen, G. Király, C. Marcenò, A. Mesterházy, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, U. Raths, U. Riecken, S. Sciandrello Alexis, A. Ssymank
Working Group Freshwater Habitats: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina Abril, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen


Habitat Description:
Very wet mires with rich fen vegetation of topogenic basins fed by calcareous ground water from the catchment. Water pH is always high (pH 6.5-8.5) due to high alkalinity. Calcium concentrations are typically very high (>20 mg/l) but sometimes lower, especially in boreal regions. Peat layer is usually relatively thin (0.5-2 m) but also sites with thicker peat layer occur, as depending on basin and catchment topography. Calcium precipitation can take place on peat surface. Water table is always close to peat surface and open water surfaces are common. Regular surface patterning can be absent, while irregular patterns of flarks, pools and hollows are common. In boreal region, typical string-flark patterning is common. In such cases, calcareous quaking mires differ from D3.2 Aapa mires by the abundance of calciphilous species, especially among bryophytes. This also is the main distinction from D2.3a Quaking mires.
Vegetation is strongly minerotrophic and characterized by abundance of Amblystegiaceae mosses, especially Scorpidium scorpioides. Other characteristic mosses include Scorpidium revolvens, Scorpidium cossoni, Calliergon richardsonii and Pseudocalliergon trifarium. In the boreal region, weaker minerotrophy indicating species like Sphagnum contortum and Warnstorfia procera can also be frequent. Vascular plant cover is characteristically sparse. Typical species include Carex chordorrhiza, Carex diandra, Carex flava, Carex lasiocarpa, Carex limosa, Carex rostrata, Carex livida, Drosera longifolia, Equisetum fluviatile, Eriophorum gracile, Juncus stygius, Liparis loeselii, Menyanthes trifoliata, Pedicularis palustris, Potentilla palustris, Schoenus ferrugineus and Utricularia intermedia. Sometimes sparse stands of Phragmites australis are found.
Indicators of good quality:
Under natural conditions, water table is close to surface and it can always be readily observed. Open water surfaces are common. Calcite precipitation takes place in richly calcareous situations, but when calcium levels are not supersaturated, precipitation can be absent. Rich fen mosses are abundant, although not necessarily forming continuous carpets. Sphagnum mosses are mainly absent from main mire surfaces, while they may be found in hummock strings or other isolated microsites. Vascular plant cover is sparse, leaving space and light for mosses.
Drainage ditches can affect calcareous quaking mires by lowering water level or by interrupting the inflow of calcareous water from the catchment. In such cases, rich fen mosses are rapidly lost and replaced by generalist species. Eutrophication by nitrogen deposition also threatens these habitats. Over growth e.g. by Sphagnum subnitens and Calliergonella cuspidata have been observed in high N deposition areas. General increase of vascular plant biomass can also indicate weakening of habitat quality.
Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Carex buxbaumii, Carex chordorrhiza, Carex diandra, Carex flava, Carex heleonastes, Carex jemtlandica, Carex lasiocarpa, Carex limosa, Carex livida, Carex viridula, Drosera longifolia, Drosera intermedia, Eriophorum angustifolium, Eriophorum latifolium, Eriophorum gracile, Equisetum fluviatile, Equisetum palustre, Juncus biglumis, Juncus stygius, Juncus subnodulosus, Juncus triglumis, Liparis loeselii,Menyanthes trifoliata, Pedicularis palustris, Phragmites australis, Potentilla palustris, Schoenus ferrugineus, Trichophorum alpinum, Triglochin maritimum, Triglochin palustre, Utricularia intermedia, Utricularia minor.
Mosses: Aneura pinguis, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Calliergon richardsonii, Campylium stellatum, Catoscopium nigritum, Cinclidium stygium, Fissidens adianthoides, Hamatocaulis lapponicus, Hamatocaulis vernicosus, Leiocolea rutheana, Loeskypnum badium, Meesia longiseta, Meesia triquetra, Meesia uliginosa, Paludella squarrosa, Pseudocalliergon trifarium, Rhizomnium pseudopunctatum, Scorpidium cossoni, Scorpidium revolvens, Scorpidium scorpioides, Sphagnum contortum, Warnstorfia procera.

Classification:
EUNIS:
D2.3 Transition mires and quaking bogs
EuroVeg Checklist:
Stygio-Caricion limosae Nordhagen 1943 
Caricion davallianae Klika 1934 (marginally)
Sphagno warnstorfii-Tomentypnion nitentis Dahl 1956 (marginally)
Annex 1: 
7230 Alkaline fens
7140 Transition mires and quaking bogs (marginal)
Emerald:
D4.1 Rich fens, including eutrophic tall-herb fens and calcareous flushes and soaks
MAES-2:
Wetlands
IUCN:
5.16. Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools
5.4. Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Widespread type in temperate and boreal zones. Dependent mainly on regional or local calcareous geochemistry and topogenic basins with rich water supply.

Map Description:
The habitat is distributed in Scandinavia where it is mainly connected to local calcareous bedrock, in Netherlands, Belgium and lowlands around Baltic Sea and in the Alps and the Carpathains. In southern Europe the habitat is extremelly rare. The map is incomplete in some regions, but the overall range is relatively well indicted. Data sources: EVA, GBIF, EXP.

Comment EU28:
Minor areas missing due to lack of data from some countries

Comment EU28+:
Minor areas missing due to lack of data from some countries

Trends in Quantity:
Strong decline is indicated in most countries, mainly between 40-60% in recent decades. Historical decline has been remarkable too but only scanty data is available. Decreasing future trend is indicated in most countries. Estonian data indicates stable or increasing trend, in contrast to other territorial data.

Trends in Quality:
Most data (with exception of Estonia) indicates decline of quality in recent past with 42% overall extent of degradation and 50% relative severity. Few countries provide input on future and historic trends. These mainly indicate decreasing quality, again with exception of Estonia.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
2-10% of the habitat type may be located within EU28. The habitat is wide spread in boreal calcareous areas especially in Alaska, Canada and Russia.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
Widespread in temperate and boreal zones, although quite patchy and rare in much of the geographical range.

Justification of Restricted Area:
Widespread in temperate and boreal zones.

Pressures and Threats:
Main pressures and threats are different types of hydrological modifications like canalizations, ditchings and ground water abstraction. Increase of nutrients due to fertilisation and nitrogen deposition and connected succession are other main threat factors. Few minor threats are mentioned: overgrazing and peat mining.

Conservation and Management:
Establishing protected areas and restoration by improving hydrological regime of disturbed sites are the main approaches. In addition, liming may be needed in some areas to improve water quality.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
7230: BOR U1, ALP U1, ATL U2, CON U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
When severely damaged in terms of hydrological disturbance, restoration by blocking and damming ditches can effectively help habitat recovery. Problems may arise if hydrological connection to calcareous ground water supply from the catchment is not regained or if nutrient mineralisation causes eutrofication. Liming may be necessary in some cases to prevent acidification and connected unfavourable vegetation succession. If loss of key species like characteristic mosses has taken place, reintroduction by transplantations should be considered, as well as active measures to suppress overgrowing by unwanted plant cover.

Summary:
Calcareous quaking mire develops in topogenic basins fed by very calcareous, nutrient-poor ground water, with generally thin peat, less than 2m thick. It occurs widely through Europe but the vast bulk of present extent is in Finland and Sweden. The surface is kept permanently very wet and covered by an extensive moss carpet with only sparse vascular plants, sometimes disposed over irregular patterns of flanks and hollows. Calcium precipitation can occur on the surface and the carpet is often interrupted by stretches of open water. Clearance for agriculture and changes in hydrology have much depleted the extent and quality of this habitat and it is vulnerable also to eutrophication.

References:
European Environment Agency. Habitats Directive Article 17 Reporting. 7230 Alkaline fens.
Gunnarsson, U & Löfroth, M 2009. Våtmarksinventeringen – resultat från 25 års inventeringar. Nationell slutrapport  för våtmarksinventeringen (VMI) i Sverige. NATURVÅRDSVERKET Rapport 5925.
Jeglum, J, Sandring, S, Christensen, P, Glimskär, A, Allard, A, Nilsson, L & Svensson, J 2014. Main ecosystem characteristics and distribution of wetlands in boreal and alpine landscapes in the northern Sweden under climate change. In Grillo, O & Venora, G (eds.) Ecosystem Biodiversity, Intech, pp. 193-218.
Nordquist, Y 1965. Calcareous fens in Jämtland. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica 50: 193-197.
Sundberg, S 2006 Åtgärdsprogram för bevarande av rikkärr. NATURVÅRDSVERKET Rapport 5601.

Criterion A Text:
Assessment based on the criterion A1 is Vulnerable (VU). The A1 bounds are estimated to be 22-44 % based on uncertainties indicated by territorial data. Historic reduction has been extensive but data is scarse and does not allow assessment of the A3 criterion. Continued reduction in the future is indicated by nearly all entries in the data.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat is wide spread and assessed as Least Concern (LC) concerning the B criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
The assessment of C/D1 criterion is NT, since reduction in quality with extent 42% and severity 50% is close to VU threshold. Data was missing from many countries with probably strong reduction in quality (Ireland, UK, Latvia) and a more critical assessment would be possible with better data. However, Finnish and Swedish data govern this type (both EU28 and EU28+) and in these countries, northern areas have mainly good quality. Future trend is expected to be negative, while historic decrease of quality is not considered so remarkable. Separation between C and D criteria was generally not indicated in the data and these are therefore not evaluated separately.

Synthesis:
Calcareous quaking mires are assessed as Vulnerable (VU) based on the criterion A1. Better data cover and quality might have resulted in more critical assessment, especially by criterion A3 of historic decline in area. These habitats are estimated to have lost about one third of their area during the past 50 years. This can be an underestimate but even the upper bound of estimation was below the threshold for the Endangered (EN) category.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Separation of subtypes and reassessment should be explored between boreal and nemoral areas. The northern habitats are generally less calcareous and less threatened e.g. by nitrogen deposition and landuse.

Contributors:
Type description: T. Tahvanainen
Territorial data: M. Hájek, L. AuniÅ†a, J. Janssen, E. Weeda, P. Perrin, D.  Paelinckx, P. Frankard, J. Paal, E. Leibak, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, T. Kontula, A. Ssymank. P. Finck, U. Raths, U. Riecken, J. Šibík, Z. KÄ…cki, B. Nygaard, V. RašomaviÄius, J.A. Molina
Working Group Mires & bogs: C. Bita-Nicolae, M. Hájek, F. Jansen, T. Tahvanainen


Habitat Description:
This is a woodland habitat defined on the sole (and ecologically questionable) basis of dominance by arborescent individuals of Ilex aquifolium without other co-dominant trees. Originally recognised as occurring in the supra-Mediterranean belt where stands occur in Sardinia and Corsica and in Atlantic mountains of northwestern Spain, it was there considered as mostly a facies of relict G3.9 Taxus baccata woodland. Other scattered occurrences exist in the nemoral zone of western Europe, in the UK for example, where they are probably facies of G1.6 Fagus woodland or G1.8 acidophilous Quercus woodland. Ilex was long exploited as a winter fodder for stock and this may account for its local abundance in landscapes where pasturing was combined with silviculture. Global warming contributes to its current successful colonization of a variety of forest types, more northern and eastern (suboceanic) in distribution than before.
Indicators of good quality:
â— The dominance of Ilex aquifolium (whatever its origin) remains the key indicator of quality here
â— Survival of the associated flora is inherited from the original woodland from which this habitat was derived
Characteristic species:
Tree layer: Ilex aquifolium dominant, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus petraea agg., Fraxinus excelsior; Shrub layer: Sorbus aucuparia, Carpinus betulus, Crataegus monogyna, Corylus avellana, Prunus spinosa, Hedera helix; Herb layer: Pteridium aquilinum, Lonicera periclymenum, Deschampsia flexuosa, Vaccinium myrtillus; Moss layer: Polytrichum formosum, Dicranum scoparium, Mnium hornum.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G2.6 Ilex aquifolium Woods
EuroVeg checklist:
Fagion sylvaticae Luquet 1926
Fraxino orni-Quercion ilicis Biondi et al. ex Biondi, Casavecchia et Gigante 2013
Quercion roboris Malcuit 1929
Luzulo-Fagion sylvaticae Lohmeyer et Tx. in Tx. 1954
Annex I types:
9380 Forests of Ilex aquifolium
Emerald:
G2 Broadleaved evergreen woodland
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
9.5 Other sclerophyllous forest

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat occurs sporading throughout different regions, mainly as a result of specific historical land-use.

Map Description:
The map is likely to be incomplete in detailed distribution, but provides a good overview of the range. Data sources: Art17, EVA.

Trends in Quantity:
The atlantic Ilex aquifolium survived the Little Ice Age in sheltered conditions including high forests in the Atlantic regions. It disappeared from coppice woodlands. Due to global warming holly is now a fast and successful colonizer of a variety of dry and moist forest types, often starting as a garden escape. The trend in quantity is positive.

Trends in Quality:
The forest type is defined by Ilex-dominance only, which makes its quality hard to define.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
>95%; a very low area occurs in Switzerland

Justification of Restricted Area:
In most sites the habitat occupies small sites, as it forms facies within other forest types in places where Ilex has profited from former land use.

Pressures and Threats:
In the temperate zone Ilex dominance increases due to global warming (mild winters) and rapid recolonisation of several woodland types from gardens. In the Mediterranean global warming (summer droughts) has probably a negative impact on Ilex woodland. Generally, Ilex is a very tough species resistant to severe browsing, burning and cutting and is easily dispersed. There are no general pressures or threats.

Conservation and Management:
This forest type does not require any management. Generally Ilex-dominance occurs in mosaic with other forest types from which it derived.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Ilex is a very tough species and the forest type can withstand pressures such as high grazing and coppicing. It (re)colonizes quickly and can reach dominance after about 50 year, depending on seed sources.

Summary:
This is a woodland habitat defined on the sole (and ecologically questionable) basis of dominance by Ilex aquifolium without other co-dominant trees. Occurring in scattered localities across temperate Europe and in Mediterranean mountains, it is usually obviously a relic or anthropogenic derivative of some other woodland type. Ilex thrives in mild climates and readily regenerates.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. 2004. Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe.  Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.              
Council of Europe. 2010. Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats.  Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. 2004. EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised.  Report to the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.                                       
European Commission DG Environment. 2007. Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency. 2006. European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No 9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell, J.S. 2013. Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005.  Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.

Criterion A Text:
No quantitative data available but most reports point to a stable or increasing area. Only for Sardinia and Sicily a stable/decreasing area is reported.

Criterion B Text:
Although restricted localities occur most of them must be considered as pockets of Ile -dominance within other forest types where Ilex normally occurs as a subordinate species. The EOO, AOO and number of locations are too high to meet B criteria thresholds.

Criterion C/D Text:
Quality is ill-defined for this forest type. No quantitatve data are available to assess quality trends.

Synthesis:
The habitat is Least concern (LC) due to its stable to increasing area and increasing range. Quality indicators are not available for this Ilex dominated forest type.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Rodwell
Territorial data: S. Bagella, J. Capelo, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo, G. Giusso Del Galdo, J.A.M. Janssen, R. Delarze, P. Dimopoulos, G. Giusso Del Galdo, K.J. Kirby, J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, F. O'Neill, B. Renaux, S. Sciandrello, E.J. Weeda
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
G1.9b Mediterranean mountain Betula and Populus tremula woodland on mineral soil

Habitat Description:
This habitat includes a variety of deciduous birch and aspen woodlands growing at the sub-alpine level in the high mountain ranges of southern Europe. In such situations, the short growing season, the prevalence of frost and high exposure limit both the possible dominants and the structure of the woodland. Silicate soils predominate, strongly acidic and often podzolised.
 In the Pyrenees and the more humid Cantabrian mountains of Spain, there are woodlands in the subalpine belt with canopies of other birches of variously contested taxonomy: B. pubescens subsp. pubescens (= B. carpatica), B. pubescens subsp. celtberica (B. celtiberica) and B. pendula subsp. fontqueri (B. fontqueri). Here birch is often a secondary invader, colonising spontaneously after avalanches, fire and clear cutting, but it can form more permanent woodlands on boulder scree where there is much winter snow accumulation.
Betula pendula forms extensive belts of woodland on rapidly eroding soils at the upper forest limit on the high mountains of Corsica 
Between 1400 and 2000m on the north-eastern slopes of Etna in Sicily, an open canopy of B. aetnensis develops over volcanic cinders in a severe montane climate subject to frequent volcanic events such as ash rains. Pinus nigra, Quercus dalechampii and Q. congesta occur occasionally with a species-poor field layer of Pteridium aquilinum, Festuca circummediterranea, Achillea ligustica, Genista aetnensis, Astragalus siculus, Tanacetum siculum and Carlina nebrodensis. 
This habitat also includes high mountain woodlands dominated by Populus tremula. On Etna, this tree dominates in small humid valley woodlands above 900m where there is a quite rich mesophytic flora including Brachypodium sylvaticum, Lathyrus pratensis, Daphne laureola and Agropyron panormitanum.
Relict aspen forests can also be found on deep colluvial soils in humid foothill and mountain gorges from 600-1500m in the central and southern Apennines. There distinctive associates are Acer obtusatum, Laburnum anagyroides, Sorbus aria, Euonymus latifolius, Prunus avium, Lonicera etrusca, Rosa arvensis, R. agrestris, Rubus hirtus, Daphne laureola and Chamaecytisus hirsutus with Sanicula europaea, Primula vulgaris, Euphorbia amygdaloides, Fragaria vesca and Melica uniflora.
Indicators of quality:
Woodland permanent not a successional stage
Dominance by either birch or aspen
Presence of the distinctive woody associates and field layer

Characteristic species:
Trees: B. pubescens ssp. pubescens (= B. carpatica), B. pubescens ssp. celtiberica (B. celtiberica) and B. pendula ssp. fontqueri (B. fontqueri).

Classification:
EUNIS:
G1.9 Non-riverine woodland with [Betula], [Populus tremula] or [Sorbus aucuparia]
EuroVegChecklist alliances:
Betulion carpatico-pubescentis Rivas-Mart. et Costa in Rivas-Mart. et al. 2002
Betulion fontquerio-celtibericae Rivas-Mart. et Costa in Rivas-Mart. et al. 2002
Aceri obtusati-Populion tremulae Taffetani 2000
Annex 1:
-
Emerald:
-
MAES:
-
Woodland and forest;
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
13.4 Other birch forest
13.5 Aspen forest

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Although the distribution of this habitat is mostly in sub-alpine ranges of Mediterranean mountain region, the extreme conditions (mineral soil, short growing season, permanent frost) makes the functioning of the habitat more similar to alpine or boreal habitats than to the geographically closer Mediterranean types.

Map Description:
The map may underestimate the distribution, due to data gaps, especially in Italy, but in Basque country and in the north of the Iberian peninsula it overestimates the presence, while the occurrences in Central and Southern Spain are doubtful. Data sources: EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
Habitat is reported in 3 countries with total area of 37 Km2. It is present in Spain (25 km2, representing 68% of the total surface), Italy (6 km2, representing 16% of total surface) and France (also 6 km2). It seems to be especially delicate to differentiate between permanent woodland in mineral soil and successional stages after disturbance colonized by birch and aspen. Therefore this total surface is subjected to revision if area division among these two types is reviewed in the future. The evolution of surface occupied by this habitat in last 50 years is reported to be slightly increasing in Spain and France, stable in continental Italy, and decreasing in Sicily. Since the surface in Sicily represents only 11% of total surface (4km2), with relative small regression (5% in last 50 years); this trend is compensated by the increase in other countries (10 % in last 50 years in Spain and 10% in France). Therefore the overall trend in surface in last 50 years is increasing by 5%. Historic trends in surface from 1750 are unknown, and there is no sufficient data to estimate future trends.

Trends in Quality:
There are no concrete studies that evaluate the trends in quality over the last 50 years, but the trend has been estimated by territorial experts in 3 countries. This estimation differs considerably among countries. It is considered as degrading in Sicily for the last 50 year period (40% relative severity affecting 20% of Italian surface). This negative trend is eclipsed by the tendency of Spain (with 68% of total surface) where the tendency is stable. There is no data about trends in France, so it has been extrapolated as following the same pattern, resulting that only 3% of habitat surface has degraded in the last 50 years. There is no data for historic (last 250 years) and there is no sufficient data to estimate future trends.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The area is increasing and the range is bigger that the threshold of 50.000 km2

Pressures and Threats:
The main threats identified by national experts are listed below, even the ones that to date seems to be of minor importance for the persistence of this habitat. The following list includes threats derived directly from human activities (grazing, silviculture), and indirect (climate change and succession towards maturity). It is important to recall that Sicilian woodlands of B.aetnensis are subjected to special threats due to volcanic activity and vulnerability to diseases.

Conservation and Management:
Main intervention approaches may include the control of grazing and forestry practices replacing this habitat with forest plantations (mainly conifers). Special conservation plan may be needed for the Silician subtype, and its recommended to include fighting against microbial pathogens as part of it.

Conservation Status:
NO DATA : 9040 Annex 1 type is not reported for Spain, France or Italy.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat is well adapted to react to disturbances and, therefore, is likely that it will recover after disturbances. If severity is high over a long period of time, human intervention will certainly help the recovery. The effort required indicatd below is a pure estimation that may need further verification.

Summary:
This habitat includes a variety of deciduous Betula and Populus tremula woodlands growing at the sub-alpine level in the high mountain ranges of southern Europe and Mediterranean islands, where the short growing season, prevalence of frost and high exposure limit both the possible dominants and the structure of the woodland. Silicate and strongly acidic soils predominate and unstable or raw substrates such as rock falls and volcanic cinders can be colonised but the habitat can also be found as relics on deep colluvium in remote gorges. Land abandonment and decline of grazing have led to an increase in extent except in Sicily. Appropriate silviculture and control of grazing are important conservation measures.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H.
 (2004) Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.
Council of Europe (2010), Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats. Strasbourg:
 Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. (2004), EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised. Report to
 the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.
European Commission DG Environment (2007), Interpretation Manual of European 
 Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency (2006), European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No
 9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell,
 J.S. (2013), Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005.
 Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.

Criterion A Text:
Overall the surface increased by approximately 5%, calculated using territorial data from Spain, France and Italy.

Criterion B Text:
AOO, EOO and number of locations are beyond the thresholds for criteria under B.

Criterion C/D Text:
Calcuations based on information from Spain, France and Italy. Only 20% of Italian surface shows degrading trends (about 3% of total surface). The rest is stable .

Synthesis:
Even although this is a very poorly studied habitat type (compared to other forest types), there is an overall consensus in the expert opinion that the trends in both quantity and quality are stable. For this reason, the assessment of this habitat considers it as Least Concern. The exception to this tendency is the subtype present in Sicily that may require special attention, not only for the presence of Betula aetnensis but also for the degrading tendency reported both in surface and in quality. If assessed separately, this subtype would probably qualify as threatened under criteria B.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Sicily presents the special subtype of Betula aetnensis, with a restricted distribution of less than 4km2.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J.Rodwell
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, O. Argagnon, F. Attorre, J. A. Campos, L. Casella, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G. Giusso del Galdo, C. Marcenò, J. Reymann ,S. Sciandrello, D. Viciani
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
G1.4 Broadleaved swamp woodland on non-acid peat

Habitat Description:
These are true swamp woodlands on non-acid peat or hydromorphic soils with a high content of organic matter occurring mainly in lowland fens where the water-table is constantly at ground level or seasonally above it, for example where sites are inundated by spring snow-melt or rain-fed flooding. However, in contrast to the woodlands of mature floodplains included in G1.2 and G1.3, there is no regular deposition of allochthonous sediments, so enrichment and terrestrialisation typically do not occur here though intermediate habitats can be found in wetter river valleys. There is characteristically a well-developed tree canopy in which, throughout most of the nemoral zone, Alnus glutinosa is the usual dominant, often with a naturally multi-stemmed growth form, Quercus robur replacing it locally in the more Continental east and Populus tremula in the Boreal zone. On thin peats in Boreal swamps of the Finnish coast and archipelago and in regions in central Europe where Alnus glutinosa is missing, Alnus incana can replace A. glutinosa in this swamp woodland. Also the dense Alnus barbata forests on swamps on coastal alluvial plains around the Black Sea belong here. Betula pubescens is a common associate but never dominates. Shrubby willows such as Salix aurita, Salix cinerea and Salix pentandra can occur in an understorey, along with other smaller woody species listed below, but they do not dominate here. Shrubby vegetation (with or without occasional trees) developed in similar situations are placed in F9.2 and F9.3 Riparian scrubs. In the field layer, large Carex spp. are a consistent and sometimes prominent feature, with C. elongata typical through much of central Europe, C. laevigata and C. paniculata replacing it towards the Atlantic zone. The associated flora throughout can be rich with large graminoids, tall herbs and sprawlers, including many typical fen species, and a carpet of bryophytes tolerant of more shady wet habitats. In Boreal and Euxinic stands, the associated flora has some distinctive herbs. In other stands, alders and huge sedge tussocks can dominate in much more species-poor swamp with much bare peat and open water.
Indicators of quality:
No forest exploitation or only very limited signs of forestry
Intact natural hydrology: maintenance of high groundwater table and no signs of drying of the peat or water-logged soil
Typical structure and composition of canopy: dominance must always ultimately lie with vigorously growing trees rather than the associated shrubs
Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying and standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi
Presence of natural disturbance such as treefall openings with natural regeneration
Structural diversity/complexity with (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers
Regional variation in the associated flora of this essentially azonal habitat is low but such distinctive typical flora and fauna species as are characteristic should persist.
Absence of non-native tree species and absence of invasive aliens in all layers (fauna and flora),
Absence of species indicative of drying of the peat or the wet soil conditions or of excessive eutrophication and no signs of pollution

Charactersitic species:
Tree canopy: Alnus glutinosa, Betula pubescens, Frangula alnus, Fraxinus excelsior, Sorbus aucuparia and Quercus robur;
Understorey/field layer: Viburnum opulus, Prunus padus, Salix cinerea, S. aurita, S. pentandra, Rubus fruticosus agg., Lysimachia vulgaris, Solanum dulcamara, Lycopus europaeus, Urtica dioica, Galium palustre, Iris pseudacorus, Calla palustris, Carex elongata, C. laevigata, C. paniculata, C. acutiformis, C. elata, Calamagrostis canescens, Lythrum salicaria, Deschampsia cespitosa, Peucedanum palustre, Filipendula ulmaria, Juncus effusus, Cirsium palustre, Caltha palustris, Crepis paludosa, Phragmites australis and the ferns Thelypteris palustris, Matteuccia struthiopteris.

Classification:
EUNIS
G1.4 Broadleaved swamp woodland not on acid peat
EuroVegChecklist:
Alnion glutinosae Malcuit 1929
Salici pentandrae-Betulion pubescentis Clausnitzer in Dengler et al. 2004
Rhamno carthaticae-Betulion pubescentis Clausnitzer in Dengler et al. 2004;
Annex I:
9080 Fennoscandian deciduous swamp woods
Emerald:
G1.4115 Eastern Carpathian Alnus glutinosa swamp woods
G1.414 Steppe swamp Alnus glutinosa woods
? G1.44 Wet-ground woodland of the Black and Caspian Seas
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
11.2 Alder swamp forest
11.4 Pedunculate oak swamp forest
11.5 Aspen swamp forest.

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This is an azonal habitat type with a dispersed distribution in several biogeographic regions.

Map Description:
The map is likely to be incomplete, especially in Germany and the Balkan. Data sources: BOHN, EVA, ETS.

Trends in Quantity:
Average recent trend during the past 40 to 50 years is between -25 % and -50% (EUR28, -34 %), for the EUR28+ because of a strong decrease in Norway probably well above 50%. Trends vary between -10% and -75%, with a stronger decrease in Northern Europe and in the Mediterranean countries. The average current trend is decreasing, especially in Mediterranean and Balkan countries, while being more or less stable in wider parts of central Europe. Future trends are difficult to assess, with the scarce available data it can be assumed that future trends will on average be decreasing. Long-term historic trend data are largely missing, so an average European value is not given.

Trends in Quality:
Extent of degradation: 63 % (EUR28, 62% for EUR28+), Severity of degradation: 45% (EUR28 & EUR28+), i.a. moderate. The trends have been calculated from >90% (EUR28; ca. 55% EUR28+) of the broadleaved swamp woodland area on non-acid peat. With regard to the highest standard of the indicators of quality completely untouched (pristine) or oldgrowth ancient forests with sufficient dead and dying trees are only present on less than 1 % of the remaining European area. Current trends in quality are on average still decreasing, with a number of countries where it is stable. Future trends will be at least partially still decreasing due to ongoing changes in hydrology and land-use.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Estimated >60%:  limited data is available but this is an azonal forest type, so broadleaved swamp woodland on non-acid peat extends much further to the east with only minor changes in floristic compostion.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
There is an ongoing decline, mainly due to changes in hydrology and in future in addition to climate change, however EOO is well > 50,000 km².

Pressures and Threats:
The main pressures and threats are usually linked to amelioration and changes in the hydrology (drainage, all kind of water abstractions of surface or groundwater, modifications in larger rivers etc.) and to pollution and eutrophication of waterbodies. These changes can be linked to agriculture, forestry or general water management. Forestry with planting of non-native trees or removal of dead and dying trees are additional pressures, regionally also invasive non-native species or diseases such as Phytophthora alni can be important. No distinct differences in pressures and threats for EU28 and EU28+.

Conservation and Management:
Restoring the natural hydrology (removal of drainage, stopping water abstractions) and reducing all kinds of pollution and eutrophication sources are vital to reducing the pressures and threats. In addition, restoring coniferous plantations to natural tree composition and allowing for more dead and dying trees in managed forests are important to maintain the full set of characteristic species. Regionally specific measures for reducing the impact of non-native species will be necessary.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Natural full recovery of the habitat usually needs time-spans of over 200 years. While the tree species can be planted, the full set of characteristic species includes many saproxylic intertebrates and fungi which need a historic habitat continuity, old and dead trees in a late development stage of forests. Semi-aquatic characteristic invertebrates can partially recolonize after interventions, provided the necessary habitat structures have developed. Some of the characteristic plant species such as Carex spp. have a long term seedbank and may redevelop if the hydrology is restored. Through intervention a partial recovery is possible in > 50 years, for the full set of saproxylic species also >200 years are needed.

Summary:
These are true swamp woodlands on non-acid peat or hydromorphic soils with a high content of organic matter occurring mainly in lowland fens where the water-table is constantly at ground level or seasonally above it, but where is no regular deposition of allochthonous sediments, hindering enrichment and terrestrialisation. There is characteristically a well-developed tree canopy, usually dominated by Alnus glutinosa, a shrubby understorey and a field layer often with big tussocky sedges. Significant pressures are changes in catchment or local hydrology, often linked to land-use shifts to agriculture and forestry, as well as pollution and eutrophication of waterbodies, regionally also invasive species or diseases. Restoring the natural hydrology and reducing all kinds of pollution and eutrophication sources are vital to conservation.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Raus, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. (2004) Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.
Fuchs, R. (2013) Dynamik der Erlenbruchwälder, Moorbirken-Moorwälder und Gagelgebüsche im Übergang Niederrhein - Ruhrgebiet : eine vegetationsökologische Analyse unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Moose. Abhandlungen aus dem Westfälischen Museum für Naturkunde 76: 1-239 + 1 CD-ROM.
Schoenert, T. (1994), Die Bruchwälder des westlichen Rheinischen Schiefergebirges / Berlin : Cramer, 1994 (Dissertationes Botanicae 228): 143 pp.
Schwabe, A. (1985), Monographie Alnus incana-reicher Waldgesellschaften in Europa: Variabilität und Ähnlichkeiten einer azonal verbreiteten Gesellschaftsgruppe [A monograph of Alnus incana woodland: variability and similarity of an association group with azonal distribution], Phytocoenologia 13 (2): 197 – 302.
Solinska-Górnicka, B. (1987): Alder (Alnus glutinosa) carr in Poland. Tuexenia 7: 329 - 346.
Suck, R.; Bushart, M. unter Mitarbeit von Hofmann, G.; Schröder, L.; Bohn, U. (2010):  Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands : Maßstab 1 : 500.000 ; Münster : BfN-Schriftenvertrieb im Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2010. - Kartenteil: 7 Karten; Legende: 24 S.
Suck, R.; Bushart, M., Hofmann, G.; Schröder, L. (2013), Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands: 2. Band: Kartierungseinheiten; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F + E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400. - BfN-Skripten 349: 1-305.
Suck, R.; Bushart, M., Hofmann, G.; Schröder, L.  unter Mitarbeit von Bohn, U.; Jenssen, M.; Bushart, M. (2014), Karte der potentiellen natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands : 3. Band: Erläuterungen, Auswertungen, Anwendungsmöglichkeiten, Vegetationstabellen ; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F+E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400.– BfN-Skripten 377: 1-317.
Suck, R.; Bushart, M., Hofmann, G.; Schröder, L. (2014), Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands : 1. Band: Grundeinheiten ; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F+E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400. – BfN-Skripten 348: 1-449.

Criterion A Text:
During the past 40-60 years there was an average decrease of -34 %  in EUR28 and -24% in EUR28+. However because of a strong decrease in Norway (without precise data), the average decrease in EUR 28+ could be well above -50% and is expected to be above -30% (leading to the conclusion Vulnerable as well). Information on long-term historic trends is limited and therefore not useful in the assessments.

Criterion B Text:
Both EOO and AOO are very large and do not meet the criteria B1 or B2. The habitat exists as an azonal type at numerous locations throughout the range.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity are weighted average calculated from >90% of the area in the EUR28 and ca. 55 % in EUR28+. Information on long historical or future trends is incomplete and could not be used for creteria CD2 and CD3. Reduction in quality often affected both biotic and abiotic changes, in some countries mainly abiotic changes (hydrology). Splitting of criteria C and D was not meaningful.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type. Due to its azonal distribution and strong link to humid microclimatic conditions climate change can potentially have a large effect on future losses in area and range.

Synthesis:
The habitat is Vulnerable, because of a reduction in quantity of 34 % (EUR28) and an assumed reduction of >30% in EUR28+ (for EUR28+ a reassessment with more data is recommended). Furthermore an intermediate reduction in quality over almost 2/3 of its area supports the assessment Vulnerable under criterion C/D1. Because of large EOO and AOO all other criteria are least concern. Assessment of long-term historic trends was not possible due to data deficiencies. With a strict and more consistent application of quality indicators an even larger area would be at least slightly affected.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
There are subtypes where the threat status could differ significantly: Alnus incana swamp woodland is much rarer and has a smaller range and distribution, but it replaces azonal Alnus glutinosa swamp woodlands mainly in cold clim

Contributors:
Habitat definition:  John Rodwell, with additions of A. Ssymank & M. Chytry
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, P.A. Aarrestad, S. Assini, F. Attorre L. Aunina, R.-J. Bijlsma, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, L. Casella, J. Capelo , ÄŒarni/Juvan, M.  Chytrý, R. Delarze , M. Dimitrov, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, L. De Keersmaeker, C. Giancola, Z. KÄ…cki,  K. J.  Kirby, C., T. Kontula,  F. O'Neill, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, B. Renaux, U. Riecken, J. Rodwell, I. Sell, Škvorc , A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, A. Thomaes, M.ValachoviÄ, K. Vanderkerkhove,  L. Wibail, W. Willner
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
This habitat comprises the rain-fed (ombrotrophic) main surfaces of blanket bog complexes (EUNIS-type X28) typical of thick peat, more than 1m deep and commonly 2-4m, on flat, gently sloping or undulating terrain in an Atlantic to Subatlantic climate where there is high and quite consistent precipitation (minimum of 1200 mm and 160 days of rain). It is most extensive in the Inited Kingdom, Ireland, the British Isles and along the west-coast of Norway. Blanket bogs are predominantly treeless and the mire surface usually has less distinct surface patterning than D1.1 Raised bogs. However, irregular alternation of small pools, hollows and hummocks with distinct species assemblages can occur and blanket bogs can bear some resemblance to raised bogs especially on flat terrain. The peat-building element of the habitat is Eriophorum vaginatum and Sphagna with Sphagnum capillifolium, S. magellanicum and S. fuscum typical and often forming extensive carpets over undulating terrain. Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Empetrum nigrum and Erica tetralix provide a sub-shrub element on drier hummocks with large hypnoid mosses and Racomitrium lanuginosum.  In flat areas, wet surface types become more characteristic with abundance of S. papillosum, S. tenellum, S. compactum, S. magellanicum, S. rubellum and S. imbricatum, accompanied by Narthecium ossifragum, Trichophorum cespitosum and Eriophorum angustifolium. Low-altitude Atlantic blanket bogs are characterized by abundance of Molinia caerulea, Trichophorum cespitosum and, in the extreme west where there is a strongly oceanic climate, even Schoenus nigricans. 
Indicators of quality:
upper layers of peat kept permanenlt wet by rain
Sphagnum carpet extensive
absence of artificial ditches or gullies or signs of burning
no indications of erosion or drying
absence of trees
absence of alien species like Rhododendron

Characteristic species
Vascular plants: Calluna vulgaris, Carex limosa, Deschampsia flexuosa, Drosera rotundifolia, Erica tetralix,  Eriophorum vaginatum, E. angustifolium, Huperzia selago, Juncus bulbosus, Molinia caerulea, Narthecium ossifragum, Potentilla erecta, Rubus chamaemorus, Schoenus nigricans, Trichophorum cespitosum, Utricularia intermedia, Utricularia minor, Vaccinium uliginosum, V. itis-idaea, Rhynchospora alba, Carex panicea, Myrica gale, Pedicularis sylvatica, Polygala serpyllifolia, Pinguicula lusitanica.
Mosses: Aulacomnium palustre, Campylopus atrovirens, Cladopodiella fluitans, Gymnocolea inflata, Leucobryum glaucum, Plagiothecium undulatum, Pleurozium schreberi, Racomitrium lanuginosum, Rhytidiadelphus loreus, Sphagnum papillosum, S. pulchrum, S. tenellum, S. compactum, S. cuspidatum, S. magellanicum, S. capillifolium, S. rubellum, S. fuscum, S. denticulatum, S. imbricatum, S. palustre, Warnstorfia fluitans (syn. Drepanocladus fluitans)
Birds: Calidris alpina, Circus cyaneus, Falco columbarius, Pluvialis apricaria

Classification:
EUNIS:
D1.2 Blanket bogs
Annex 1:
7130 Blanket bogs
EuroVegChecklist:
Caricion canescenti-fuscae Nordhagen ex Tx. 1937
Caricion lasiocarpae Vanden Berghen in Lebrun et al. 1949
Rhynchosporion albae Koch 1926 nom. ambig. propos.
Ericion tetralicis Schwickerath 1933
Oxycocco-Ericion tetralicis Nordhagen ex Tx. 1937
Sphagnion medii Kästner et Flössner 1933
Emerald:
D1.2 Blanket bogs
MAES-2:
Wetlands
IUCN:
4. Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This active rain-fed (ombrotrophic) blanket bog habitat is typical of the wet, cool climate of the Atlantic to Subatlantic uplands and sub-montane zone.

Map Description:
The habitat is restricted to northwestern part of the Atlantic biogeographic region with the largest areas reported from Ireland, United Kingdom and southeastern Norway, less extensive occurrences in the Atlantic parts of Spain, Portugal and France. The map is prossibly complete, but occurrences in France (Brittany) and Northern Spain are unclear. Data sources: BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
Except in France, there is a current decrease in quantity.  Over recent historic time, losses have been greatest in Spain and Portugal which are outliers to the main distribution area.  In the UK, which has the bulk of the current extent, losses vary, with 1% per year in England, 15% over 80 years in Wales, slight loss in Northern Ireland and no evidence of change in Scotland.  In Ireland losses over long historic and recent time have been substantial but of uncertain extent. Everywhere, decrease is like to continue.

Trends in Quality:
Except in France, the quality of the habitat continues to decline.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
95% compared with EU28+ but blanket bog is a widespread habitat through the circumpolar region.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO is substantial but there are continuing losses towards the margins of the range.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The EOO is substantial but there are continuing losses towards the margins of the range.

Pressures and Threats:
Mechanical removal of peat, too much or too little grazing, atmospheric N deposition, drainage an fires are reported.

Conservation and Management:
Control of peat removal, of drainage for water abstraction and tree-planting, of grazing, and good management for grouse-rearing are essential for conservation of this habitat.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Substantial damage to hydrographic functioning and through peat removal make restoration very difficult and slow and continuing deposition of atmosphere nitrogen, and uncontrolled grazing and burning can undermine recovery.

Summary:
This active ombrotrophic bog habitat is typical of thick peat on flat, gently sloping or undulating terrain in an Atlantic to Subatlantic climate where there is high and quite consistent precipitation, being especially extensive in the UK and Ireland, less so in Norway and with small outliers in France, Portugal and Spain. Being dependent on high water content, drainage of upland areas for water abstraction and afforestation poses a threat and, where used for extensive sheep grazing and grouse-rearing, it is vulnerable to excessive burning and disturbance. Atmospheric nitrogen deposition and, more recently, wind-farm development pose threats. Losses to peat cutting continue, particular in Ireland, where the habitat supplies power generation. Decline in extent and quality is almost universal, and conservation depends on careful catchment management in water supply, control of forestry and good pastoral management.

References:
Lindgaard A & Henriksen S (eds) 2011. The 2011 Norwegian Red List for Ecosystems and Habitat Types. Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, Trondheim.
Martínez Cortizas A., Pontevedra Pombal X, Novóa Muñoz J.C., García-Rodeja E. 2000.Turberas de montaña NW Penínsul Ibérica . Edafologia, 7: 1-29.
Rodwell, J.S. (editor), 1991. British Plant Communities, Volume 2 Mires and heaths. Cam,bridge: Cambridge University Press.

Criterion A Text:
Losses are relatively large in Ireland, England, the Azores and Norway, but stable trends in Scotland dominate the calculation, resulting in a relatively low average trends for EU28 and EU28+. With quite large uncertainty, average values are about -16% decline.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO is >50000 km2 and the AOO is >50 grid cells.

Criterion C/D Text:
It is not possible to calculate the average European trends, as most delivered data were not quantitative or even missing. However, the reported trends in Ireland (significant increasing level of degradation), and data from Wales (30% extent, 70% severity) indicate values meeting the thresholds for Near Threatened.

Synthesis:
This habitat is assessed as Near Threatened (NT) because of a strong decline in quality over the last 50 years (criterion C/D1), though the provided quantitative data was limited. This trend is combined with a relatively small average decline in area.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: T. Tahvanainen
Territorial data: J. Capelo, A.Crowle, D. Espírito-Santo, B. Hamill, P. Jones, A. Lyngstad, A. Mikolajczak, A. Moen, J.A. Molina, D.-I. Øien, P. Perrin, D. Spray.
Working Group Mires & bogs: C. Bita-Nicolae, M. Hájek, F. Jansen, T. Tahvanainen


Habitat Type Name:
H3.1b Temperate high mountain siliceous inland cliff

Habitat Description:
Siliceous (rich in quartz and silicate minerals such as mica, feldspar, biotite and hornblende) cliffs and walls of acid rock in the high mountains of the nemoral biogeographical zone. The most common kinds of siliceous rock are granite, gneiss and crystal schist, mostly of Palaeozoic age. Younger igneous-volcanic acid rocks such as quartz-porphyry also occur, for instance in the western central Alps. As gneiss and granitic rocks weather more slowly than calcareous rock, the vegetation of vascular plants in crevices and on ledges in the high mountains is less species-rich. Siliceous rock-faces, on the other hand, are richer in epilithic lichens. Lichens of crustose (Acarospora, Haematomma, Lecanora, Lecidea s.l., Rhizocarpon, Sarcogyna, Schaereria, Sporastatia) and foliose (Parmelia s.l., Physcia, Umbilicaria) growth form prevail. Endolithic lichens and micro-algae are other important components of siliceous rock biota. Siliceous rock-dwelling bryophytes of the temperate high mountains include chiefly acrocarpic mosses and hepatics, among others many species of Grimmia, Racomitrium, Schistidium, Andreaea and Marsupella. Bryophyte diversity and abundance is highest in fissures of wet rocks and on ledges with a thin humus layer. Among the vascular plants tufted or matted perennial herbs prevail; plants of rosulate or succulent growth form may be prominent. Species-rich genera of silicolous chasmophytes are Saxifraga, Sempervivum, Primula, Phyteuma and Artemisia. Alpine siliceous cliffs are generally less species-rich than calcareous cliffs of the high mountains. Nevertheless, several range-restricted taxa are confined to siliceous inland cliffs.
The habitat type occurs in the high mountains of nemoral Europe, chiefly in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians and the Balkanic mountain ranges of Stara Planina (Balkan range), Rila and Rhodopes, and further east in the Caucasus.
Indicators of good quality:
High-mountain siliceous cliffs of the temperate zone are particularly rich in lichens and bryophytes, less so in vascular plants. It is therefore advisable to take cryptogram diversity into consideration when assessing the habitat quality of siliceous cliffs. Relict arcto-alpine and range-restricted taxa among both phanerogams and cryptogams are the most significant biological quality indicators.
The following characteristics may be used as indicators of favourable quality:
Occurrence of rare species of lichens, bryophytes and phytogeographically significant vascular plant taxa,
Presence of sizable cliffs and large boulders with species-rich lichen crusts and bryophyte assemblages, with different aspects of rock-faces, different exposure, moisture and rock structures such as vertical rock faces, overhangs, cavities, rock shelters, and ledges
Contact with natural habitats such as screes, boulder fields and alpine grasslands
Absence of rock climbing facilities

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Agrostis (rupestris, schraderiana), Alyssum repens, Androsace (alpina, vandellii, wulfeniana), Anthemis pindicola, Artemisia (genipi, glacialis, umbelliformis subsp. eriantha, umbelliformis subsp. umbelliformis), Asplenium septentrionale, Bupleurum stellatum, Campanula wanneri, Centaurea deustiformis, Dianthus (sylvestris, tristis), Draba dubia, Erigeron schleicheri, Eritrichium nanum, Erysimum rhaeticum, Hylotelephium anacampseros, Jacobaea incana subsp. carniolica, Minuartia cherlerioides subsp. rionii, Phyteuma (hemisphaericum, humile, scheuchzeri subsp. scheuchzeri), Poa laxa, Potentilla (doerfleri, haynaldiana), Primula (hirsuta, minima), Saxifraga (aspera, bryoides, cotyledon, exarata, florulenta, juniperifolia, muscoides, pedemontana subsp. cymosa, pedemontana subsp. pedemontana), Sempervivum (arachnoideum, grandiflorum, marmoreum, montanum, wulfenii), Silene (acaulis, dinarica, lerchenfeldiana), Veronica baumgartenii, Woodsia alpina
Bryophytes: Andreaea (rothii, rupestris), Diplophyllum taxifolium, Ditrichum zonatum, Dryptodon patens, Grimmia (affinis, alpestris, anomala, arenaria, caespiticia, curvata, donniana, elatior, elongata, funalis, incurva, muehlenbeckii, torquata, unicolor), Gymnomitrion concinnatum, Lophozia sudetica, Racomitrium (aquaticum, fasciculare, heterostichum, microcarpon, sudeticum)
Lichens: Acarospora (chlorophana, peliscypha), Catolechia wahlenbergii, Cornicularia normoerica, Dimelaena oreina, Ephebe lanata, Haematomma (ochroleucum, ventosum), Lecanora (bicincta, cenisia, frustulosa, intricata, lojkaeana, orosthea, polytropa, reagens, subcarnea, subplanata, swartzii), Lecidea s.l. (confluens, distans, garovaglii, griseoatra, leucophaea, mosigii, nigroleprosa, silacea, speirodes, umbonella, umbonata), Lepraria (latebrarum, membranacea, neglecta), Massalongia carnosa, Ophioparma ventosa, Orphiniospora moriopsis, Parmelia s.l. (conspersa, disjuncta, incurva, loxodes, mougeotii, omphalodes, panniformis, pulla, somloensis, sorediosa, stygia, verrucilifera), Placopsis (gelida, lambii), Pseudephebe (minuscula, pubescens), Ramalina capitata, Rhizocarpon (alpicola, atroflavescens, badioatrum, caeruleoalbum, carpaticum, distinctum, eupetraeum, geographicum, leptolepis, obscuratum, oederi, polycarpum), Sarcogyne clavus, Schaereria (cinereorufa, tenebrosa), Sphaeroporus fragilis, Sporastatia (polyspora, testudinea), Tremolecia atrata, Umbilicaria (cylindrica, crustulosa, hirsuta, polyphylla, polyrrhiza, subglabra, torrefacta, vellea)

Classification:
EUNIS:
H3.1 Acid siliceous inland cliffs
EuroVegChecklist:
Androsacion vandellii Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et Jenny 1926 nom. corr.
Saxifragion cymosae LakušiÄ‡ 1970
Saxifragion pedemontanae Barbero et Bono 1967
Silenion lerchenfeldianae Simon 1958
Annex 1:
8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation (This Annex 1 habitat type applies to a geographically and altitudinally wider range of European siliceous cliff habitats)
Emerald:
H3.1 Acid siliceous inland cliffs
MAES-2:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
6. Rocky areas

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type occurs predominantly on siliceous cliffs and acidic rocks in the high mountains of nemoral Europe, chiefly in the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Carpathians and the Balkanic mountain ranges of Stara Planina (Balkan range), Rila and Rhodopes.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, except for the Balkan and Switzerland. Data sources: Art17, NAT.

Comment EU28+:
no data from Albania, Montenegro, Serbia

Trends in Quantity:
The present past trend in quantity (extent) over the last approximately 50 years is stable to slightly decreasing (EU28: -0.4%; EU28+: -1.7%). As the habitat occurs in high mountain areas it is weakly affected by human activities. The very slight decrease was due to local construction of ski resorts and roads as well as quarrying operations. The extent of the habitat type is supposed to remain stable in the near future.

Trends in Quality:
The decrease in quality over the last 50 years has occurred more or less locally, affecting less than 10% of the total area. The calculated severity of degradation is below 40%. The reduction in quality is mainly related to rock climbing (removal of vegetation, disturbances to the local fauna) and proximity to human infrastructures (disturbances to the local fauna and flora) though the impacts have to be estimated as minor on the whole. The quality of the habitats will probably be affected by climate change and higher temperatures in the future.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
60%. The habitat type occurs in the high mountains of nemoral Europe (incl. Switzerland and the Balkan outside the EU28+) and further east in the Caucasus.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is widespread across nemoral high-mountain regions in Europe. The EOO is > 50000 km².

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is widespread across nemoral high-mountain regions in Europe.

Pressures and Threats:
As the habitat is restricted to high mountain areas it is in general weakly affected by human activities. Major threats are related to outdoor sports. More precisely, rock climbing or via ferrata cause disturbances to the local fauna and flora, especially to birds. Further disturbances come from nearby human infrastructures like ski resorts or roads. At lower altitudes quarrying is also a source of threats. As far as future threats are concerned, the habitats are probably affected by the impacts of climate change.

Conservation and Management:
Cliffs are crucial features of high mountain environments. As they are natural habitats, no specific management measures are required except avoiding disturbance and destruction of sites. The protection of those habitats and corresponding species is realised best by the establishment of large-scale protected areas, where natural processes are allowed without any restrictions.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
8220: ALP FV, ATL XX, CON U1, MED XX

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Once completely destroyed the habitat has almost no capacity to recover, as it is dependent on geomorphological processes (orogenesis). In the case of damage without destruction of sites, at least for plants capable of dispersal, the natural recovery of this habitat is rather fast when it is not isolated from similar habitats. The recolonization of sites by breeding birds after strong disturbances may take longer.

Summary:
These are siliceous cliffs and rock faces of acid various mostly Palaeozoic rocks in the high mountains of the nemoral biogeographical zone. Slow weathering of these resistant rocks creates fewer niches for colonisation and  the vascular flora of the crevices and on ledges here is rather species-poor but rich in epilithic lichens. Quarrying, the construction of skiing complexes and infrastructure facilities and tourism, particular climbing, continue to threaten. As far as conservation is concerned, no specific management measures are required except avoiding disturbance and destruction of sites, which is achieved best by establishment of large-scale protected areas.

References:
Chytrý, M. (ed.) 2009. Vegetace ÄŒeské republiky 2. Ruderální, plevelová, skalní a suÅ¥ová vegetace. Vegetation of the Czech Republic 2. Ruderal, weed, rock and scree vegetation. Katalogizace vknize. Národní knihovna ÄŒR. Academia, Praha
Grabherr, G. and Polatschek, A. 1986. Lebensräume und Flora Vorarlbergs. Vorarlberger Verlagsanstalt, Dornbirn
Juvan, N., ÄŒarni, A. and Jogan, N. 2011. Chasmophytic vegetation of silicate rocks on the southern outcrops of the Alps in Slovenia. Wulfenia 18: 133-156.
Mucina L. 1993. Asplenietea trichomanis. In: Grabherr, G. and Mucina, L. (eds.): Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs. Teil II. Natürliche waldfreie Vegetation: 241–275. Gustav Fischer, Jena
Pott, R. 1995. Die Pflanzengesellschaften Deutschlands. Ulmer, Stuttgart
ValachoviÄ, M. 1995. Asplenietea trichomanis Br.-Bl. 1934 in Meier et Br.-Bl. 1934. In: ValachoviÄ, M. (ed.): Rastlinné spoloÄenstvá Slovenska. Pionierska vegetácia: 15–41. VedavydavateÄ¾stvo Slovenskej Akadémie vied, Bratislava
Wendelberger, G. 1967. Grundzüge zu einer Vegetationskunde Salzburgs. Mitteilungen der österreichischen geographischen Gesellschaft 109: 46-65

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated by using the territorial data sheets. The calculated trend in the last 50 years is a reduction of about 0.4% (EU28) and 1.7% (EU28+), respectively (resulting in category Least Concern). No data (%) available or unsufficient data for A2a, A2b and A3.

Criterion B Text:
EOO, AOO and number of locations are much larger than the thresholds for criteria under B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The values for C/D1 were calculated by using the territorial data sheets. The calculated figures result in a Least Concern category. No reliable data (%) available for C/D2, C/D3, C1, C2, C3, D1, D2 and D3.

Synthesis:
As the habitat is widespread in high mountain areas and hence the impact of human activities is limited, reductions in quantity and quality occur mainly at a local scale. All calculated trends qualify for a Least Concern status. Although territorial data were not provided from all countries, the assessment has a high degree of reliability.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Endemic, species-rich forms may be distinguished for different mountain ranges, like the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians and the Balkan.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: E. Bergmeier
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, R.Delarze, P. Dimopoulos, P. Finck, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, J. Loidi, V. Matevski, D. MilanoviÄ‡, F. Millaku G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Rusakova, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso Del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
Evergreen, open, low scrub communities of the meso-, thermo- and occasionally supra-Mediterranean zones of Greece, southern Albania, western and eastern coasts of the Adriatic Sea, Cyprus and southern Anatolia, Black Sea coasts in Crimea, southern Bulgaria, European part of Turkey and northern Anatolia, as well as in the Mediterranean-Steppic zone of southern Thrace. Here are included all the sclerophyllous communities with scanty and low physiognomy due to the increased summer aridity and human pressure. The scrub communities with: a) conspicuous spiny cushion structure (F7), b) abundant thermo-Mediterranean shrub species (F5.5) and c) Erica arborea and Arbutus spp. forming high macchia vegetation (F5.2) are excluded from this unit.
This habitat type includes:
a)    garrigues dominated by Quercus coccifera, the most widespread xerophyllous scrub communities in the eastern meso-Mediterranean,
b) xerophyllous low scrub communities with Cistus spp., Rosmarinus officinalis of the eastern Ionian, Aegean and eastern Mediterranean coastlands and more to the inland,
c) low scrub communities (garrigues) of the western and eastern coasts of the Adriatic Sea (Illyrian garrigues) dominated by, Erica manipuliflora, Erica multiflora, Rosmarinus officinalis, Spartium junceum and dwarf shrubs like Cistus spp. and Dorcynium hirsutum,
d) Mediterranean-type xerophyllous open low scrub communities (Black Sea garrigues) dominated mostly by Cistus incanus and Cistus salvifolius (distributed along the Black Sea coasts - in Crimea, southern Bulgaria, and European part of Turkey and northern Anatolia, as well as of the Mediterranean-Steppic zone of southern Thrace). The most typical Mediterranean species, including evergreen shrubs like Myrtus communis, Arbutus unedo and A. andrachne, occur at the Anatolian coast of the Black Sea. Specific communities (not typical garrigues, as the dominant species are perennial herbs and short semi-shrubs) are distributed on flysch slopes of the Crimean Peninsula.
All the types of garrigues assigned to the habitat F6.2, as geographically and floristically/ecologically differentiated above, are dominated by (or are rich in) Quercus coccifera, Rosmarinus officinalis, Erica manipuliflora, Cistus incanus, C. salvifolius and Dorcynium hirsutum, low shrubby Juniperus oxycedrus, or J. phoenicea, Lavandula stoechas or L. angustifolia, labiate shrubs or robust perennials like Teucrium fruticans, Phlomis spp., Salvia triloba, S. argentea, S. eichlerana, S. pomifera, Stachys spp., broom-like shrubs of the genera Genista, Chamaecytisus, Teline, Ebenus cretica (in Crete), dwarf, shrubby composites of the genera Helichrysum, Phagnalon, Scorzonera, shrubs dominated by Erica manipuliflora, low bushes of Arbutus andrachne, Globularia alypum, dwarf shrubs of the genera Helianthemum or Fumana, shrubs of the genus Thymelaea, Bupleurum fruticosum shrubs and, finally, the low, pre-desert formations with Ziziphus spp., Acacia albida, Capparis spinosa, Rhamnus palaestina, Rhus tripartita of the Levant and southern Anatolia.
Garrigues are the result of retrogressive succession after degradation of evergreen Mediterranean forest and macchia (maquis) vegetation and maintained by grazing and fire. The floristic composition of garrigues reflects the diverse geographical position, altitudinal zones and human impact. The garrigues at the Black Sea coasts represent one of the latest stages of degradation of the mixed xerothermic oak forests and pseudomaquis in areas with transitional-Mediterranean climate. They differ from the typical Mediterranean garrigues by the prevalence of deciduous species and the absence of typical Mediterranean species.
Indicators of quality:
· Low levels of soil compactness and absence of active secondary succession
· Communities rich in perennial and annual herb species, shrub and semi-shrub species
· Presence and abundance of a given set of typical (diagnostic) species or functional traits (i.e. morphological, physiological and life history characteristics)
· Dominance of low shrub and semi-shrub species
· Open habitat conditions
· Moderate grazing
· Absence of fire
· Absence of alien, invasive and/or ruderal species
· Occurrence of rare and/or threatened species mostly with Mediterranean origin
· Sporadic presence of maquis and forest species.
Characteristic species:
Arbutus andrachne, Bupleurum fruticosum, Capparis spinosa, Cistus creticus, C. laurifolius, C. salvifolius, Dorcynium hirsutum, Ebenus cretica, Erica manipuliflora, E. multiflora, Fumana spp., Globularia alypum, Helianthemum spp., Helichrysum spp., Juniperus oxycedrus, J. phoenicea, Lavandula angustifolia, L. stoechas, Phagnalon graecum, Phlomis cretica, P. floccosa, P. fruticosa, P. lanata, Quercus coccifera, Rhamnus palaestina, Rhus tripartita, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia argentea, S. eichlerana, S. pomifera, S. triloba, Stachys cretica, Teucrium fruticans, Thymelaea tartonraira, Ziziphus lotus, Z. spina-christi

Classification:
EUNIS:
F6.2 Eastern garrigues
F6.3 Illyrian garrigues
F6.4 Black Sea garrigues
EuroVegChecklist:
Cisto cretici-Ericion manipuliflorae Horvatic 1958
Cisto eriocephali-Ericion multiflorae Biondi 2000
Arbuto andrachnae-Quercion cocciferae Barbero et Quézel 1979
Quercion ilicis Br.-Bl. ex Molinier 1934 (only the secondary Quercus coccifera and Arbutus adrachne communities of garrigues should be considered).
Annex I:
-
Emerald:
-
MAES:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.8 Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is distributed in Mediterranean zones of Greece, Cyprus and southern Anatolia, in southern Albania, in western and eastern coasts of the Adriatic Sea,  Black Sea coasts in Crimea, southern Bulgaria, European part of Turkey and northern Anatolia, as well as in the Mediterranean-Steppic zone of southern Thrace.

Map Description:
The map is very incomplete with data gaps throughout the range. Data sources: EVA.

Comment EU28:
The current estimated total area is based only on the territorial data provided in combination to the literature available for the Quercus coccifera scrublands in the Mediterranean.

Trends in Quantity:
The area covered by the habitat is increasing due to the forest degradation after grazing and forestry activities in the past; the current trend in quantity is increasing due to the secondary succession of vegetation after abandonment of traditional agro-silvo-pastoral activities. This estimation is based on literature and our expert judgement opinion, due to the unavailable territorial data.

Trends in Quality:
The territorial data provided by the countries where the habitat occurs are rather incomplete; thus could only partly be used to conclude on the trend in quality. However based on the literature and the data provided it is concluded that the trend is stable to increasing and only in the case of Bosnia & Herzegovina a decreasing trend in quality has been reported. The forest degradation due to the livestock breeding had possitive effects to the habitat (abiotic and biotic).

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
More than 80% of the current distribution of the habitat lies within the EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
No decline, that could lead to a small natural range of the habitat has been recorded.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is rather widely distributed in the Eastern part of the Mediterranean biogeographical zone; it is altitudinally arranged at the  thermo-, meso-  and occasionally supra-Mediterranean zones of Greece, southern Albania, western and e

Pressures and Threats:
The main pressures and threats for the habitat are related to the intensive grazing from the one side and the lack of grazing from the other, that activate either the deterioration of the structure and functions of the habitat or activate the ecological succession towards woodland communities respectivey. Changes in land cover/land uses and changes in species composition due to urbanization of any pattern, forest and plantation management  (reforestation projects) & use, as well as due to restructuring agricultural land holding are also pressures which might become threats for the habitat's conservation in the long term.

Conservation and Management:
Currently and as far as it is known from literature, no conservation measures/actions are implemented to safeguard the structure and functions of the habitat and its favorable conservation status. This is also related to the fact that the Eastern garrigues are not corresponding to any Annex I habitat type of the Dir. 92/43/EC.

Conservation Status:
The habitat is not corresponding to any of the Annex I habitat types of the Directive 92/43/EC.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
In case of fire, the only indirect measures to be taken in order that the restoration of the habitat becomes possible, are related to the prevention of grazing and other legistlative regulations to prevent land cover/land use changes and changes in species composition towards the establishment of woodland communties, through ecological succession.

Summary:
This is open, low scrub dominated by sclerophyllous shrubs and sub-shrubs that is derived from degraded evergreen forest and maquis in the eastern Mediterranean including the Black Sea coast, and sustained by summer aridity, grazing and fire. The floristic composition is diverse and dependent on geographical position across the range, altitude and the particularity of human impact. Abandonment or intensive grazing are the main threats and no particular conservation measures are needed if traditional agriculture is maintained.

References:
Barbero, M. & P. Quézel 1979. Contribution à l’étude des groupements forestiers de Chypre. Documents phytosociologiques IV: 9-34.
Biondi, E. 2000. Syntaxonomy of the mediterranean chamaephytic and nanochamaephytic vegetation in Italy. Colloques phytosociologiques 27: 123-145.
HorvatiÄ‡, S. 1958. Tipološko rašÄlanjenje primorske vegetacije gariga i borovih šuma. Acta botanica Croatica 17: 7-98.
Tsiourlis, G., P. Konstantinidis & P. Xofis 2009. Syntaxonomy and Synecology of Quercus coccifera Mediterranean Shrublands in Greece. Journal of Plant Biology 52 (5): 433-447.
http://www.prodromo-vegetazione-italia.org (access: 19-Sep-2014)

Criterion A Text:
The available data are incomplete, but Greece (the country with the largest area) reported a large increase since 1960.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has not a restricted geographic distribution. On the contrast it is relatively widespread in the Eastern Mediterranean zones (Greece, Cyprus, Southern & Northern Anatolia), in the Adriatic Sea and the Black-Sea coastal areas in Crimea, in some Balkan countries (southern Albania, southern Bulgaria), the European part of Turkey as well as in the Mediterranean-Steppic zone of southern Thrace.

Criterion C/D Text:
Only scattered information is provided by the territorial experts, but it is clear that only a very small part of the extent (0-5%) has declined in Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, nd Croatia. Only Bosnia & Herzegovina (having a small area of the habitat) reported a negative trend over the whole range, but with low severity. Overall, the current trend in biotic and abiotic quality of the habitat is stable to increasing.

Synthesis:
Relatively few quantitative data exist, but all information indicates that the habitat is Least Concern (LC), as declines in quality are relatively small and the habitat is widespread and increasing in area in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Various communities and associations have been identified within the distribution range of the habitat, which might be considered geographically and ecologically distinguished sub-habitat types and would require further examination.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: P. Dimopoulos & F. Xystrakis
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, Z. Barina, L. Casella, C.S. Christodoulou, P. Dimopoulos, G. Giusso Del Galdo, C. Gussev, C. Marcenò, Z. Škvorc, V. Stupar, R. Tzonev
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Description:
Limestone pavements are geomorphological landscapes resulting from dissolution processes exerted on hard limestone tables probably formed by glacial erosion. They consist of usually gently-sloping platforms with blocks of limestone separated by a network of vertical fissures. The size, shape and regularity of the blocks vary according to the local features of the bedrock and of the climate, but the regular mosaic of contrasting microhabitats is a common feature to all limestone pavements. This unit has a purely geomorphologic definition. It occurs from sea level up to 3000 m  in the Alps and extends to a wide range including different karstic regions of Europe, where it receives different local names: lapiaz, karren, limestone pavement, alvar. This specific geomorphology is apparently linked to glacial origins. Karstic outcrops occurring in the Mediterranean region are often less typical. Only large tabular surfaces showing typical dissolution features come into consideration for habitat H3.5a.
The rock surface of the pavement is almost devoid of soil, with a resulting vegetation cover well under 30%. Spots of thin soil allow locally the presence of drought-resistant communities: cushions of lichens and bryophytes, fragments of dry tufted grasslands.  Most of the vascular plants root in the fissures, where rubble and fine sediment, including aeolian and organic matter, accumulate, sometimes also the long-weathered remnants of pre-Quaternary deposits. These fissures (called grikes or Kluftkarren) offer a sheltered microclimate, favoring ferns and macroforb communities; heath and scrub can also occur (wooded pavements belong to other units). Espaliered plants, with their stems expanding at the rock surface, are also a typical component of the mosaic but exposure to wind and grazing by wild herbivores or farm stock may limit expansion of vegetation from the fissures. 
According to the diversity of climates encountered in the large range of this unit, the floristic composition is variable and not very helpful for the identification: the communities occurring in the pavement mosaic are not the same in the Alps as in Britain. Anyway, none of those communities is unique to limestone pavements. What is characteristic is the pattern of contrasting microhabitats, and the resulting mosaic of small patches of different vegetation types.
Indicators of good quality:
Typical limestone pavements are large and uniformly level, sub-horizontal tables of blocks made of unfragmented frost-resistant hard stone. The vegetation covers less than 30%. Trees are absent or very scattered. Limestone outcrops of small extent (less than 1000 m2) or not showing the typical pattern are excluded. This habitat does not recover after quarrying and other extractive activities.
Characteristic species:
Flora
The flora varies greatly according to the climate of the region and the exact conformation of the limestone surface.

Classification:
EUNIS:
H3.511 Limestone pavements
EuroVegChecklist:
Not relevant because of a very large number of alliances are likely to occur in this habitat.
Annex 1 :
8240 Limestone pavements (include Mediterranean karsts)
Emerald :
H3.511 Limestone pavements
MAES-2 :
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN :
6. Rocky areas

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is typical of limestone regions where glaciers once shaped the landscape, such as the Alps, the Pyrenees, the northern-Atlantic and the Boreal regions.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, except for occurrences in Switzerland and the Balkan (Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Macedonia). Data sources: Art17, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
The current trend in quantity is stable at the European scale because this habitat is either found within mountainous regions - and therefore it is weakly affected by human activities - or it is largely part of managed sites networks like in Ireland and the UK. The trend over the last 50 years is slightly decreasing at the European scale (-6,2% EUR28,  -5,6% EUR28+), but this trend hides strong differences among biogeographical regions. It is almost stable in alpine countries (around -1%) - reflecting local destructions by mining and quarrying and construction of ski resorts (grinding of pavements, sealing of cracks and holes) – whereas it reaches -20% and -7% in Ireland and the UK respectively – reflecting quarrying, clearance for agriculture, and abandonment.

Trends in Quality:
The current trend in quality is stable or even increasing in some places thanks to conservation measures recently put in place, like in the Burren in Ireland. A relatively significant reduction in quality (60% severity) has occurred over the last 50 years in the EU28, but fairly spatially limited (10% of the extent of the habitat). More or less the same pattern is observed among most countries. The development of ski resorts is the main threat in alpine countries. Holes and tall cracks in pavements are very often sealed for security reasons - hindering animals' movements - when they are not simply destroyed by grinding. In Ireland and the UK, the reduction in quality is mainly due to land abandonment and encroachment of hazel scrubs. Data from the boreal region is missing as well as from Switzerland.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Of the current distribution of the habitat, 80% lies within the EU 28, the remaining 20 % being in Switzerland and Balkan countries outside the EU28. Karst landforms are found elsewhere in the world, but limestone pavements such as these occurring in Europe have a restricted distribution.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is widespread from southern Baltic countries, to Portugal and the Balkan.

Justification of Restricted Area:
Although the surfaces occupied by this habitat are naturally limited by the occurrence of suitable limestone strata near or at the soil surface (ancient geomorphological process of erosion by glaciers), the overall range is not small.

Pressures and Threats:
High-mountain limestone pavements are threatened mainly by the construction of ski resorts and ski runs. Pavements at lower altitude may be destroyed by mining, quarrying and the storage of materials. Bioceonotic succession (slow encroachment of scrub) and invasive plant species may also affect those pavements at low altitude.

Conservation and Management:
There is no management need for this highly natural habitat to remain but leaving it undisturbed and undamaged. Natural succession is very slow because of the extreme edaphic conditions. Therefore, it should not be considered as a conservation problem. Conservation is then effective when free evolution is possible, like within protected areas. The suggested ‘Manage landscape features’ measure refers to the need to better protect in land-use planning this kind of habitat that shows a high degree of naturalness, especially when no other specific regulation can be applied (no protected species or habitat, outside a protected area, outside a N2000 site).

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
8240: ATL U1, BOR U1, MED U1, ALP FV, CON FV

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
No recovery is possible after destruction. Limestone pavements were shaped in a time when glaciers covered much part of northern Europe and the Alps.

Summary:
Limestone pavements are geomorphological landscapes resulting from dissolution processes exerted on hard limestone tables probably formed by ancient glacial erosion and subsequent weathering. They occur in or around the Alps and the Apennines and in northern Atlantic and Baltic regions and comprise flat or sloping surfaces of limestone separated by a network of vertical fissures. The size, shape and regularity of the blocks vary according to the local character of the bedrock and the climate and much of the surface is bare but slowly accumulating soil and the shelter of crevices provides a variety of situations for colonisation.  Drought-resistant communities of cushions of lichens and bryophytes and fragments of dry tufted grasslands can occur in exposed situations with more luxuriant vegetation of ferns, herbs, shrubs and trees in shelter.  Wind and herbivores often curtail any surface spread. The composition of the flora contrasts markedly between the major areas of occurrence.  Mining and quarrying, construction of ski resorts and other tourist activities threaten the physical character of the habitat and abandonment of pastoral farming can allow the spread of scrub and woodland.

References:
Gaudillat V., 2008. Les pavements calcaires, habitat d’intérêt communautaire prioritaire (UE 8240).  Présentation et situation en France. Rapport SPN 2008./1.MNHN-DEBG-SPN, Paris, 34 p.
Limestone Pavement Action Group, 2003. Limestone pavement. Our fragile heritage. 3rd ed., 9 p. [http://www.limestone-pavements.org.uk/pdf/our_fragile_heritage.pdf]
Sweeting M.M., 1972. Karst Landforms. MacMillan, London, 362 p.
Ward S.D. & Evans D.F., 1976. Conservation assessment of British limestone pavements based on floristic criteria. Biological Conservation, 9 : 217-233.
Webb S. & Glading P., 1998. The Ecology and Conservation of Limestone Pavement in Britain. British Wildlife, december 1998 : 103-113.

Criterion A Text:
There has been a slight reduction in quantity at the EU 28 and EU 28+ levels in the past 50 years. Calculations were based on territorial data only. There is no available quantitative data on historical or future reductions in quantity and this habitat is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has an EOO larger than 50,000 Km2 and an AOO larger than 50 and is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
There has been a reduction in quality with a relatively strong impact (approximately 60% severity) affecting 10% of the extent of the habitat in the last 50 years. The values reported above were calculated using territorial data. There is no information on historical or future trends in quality for this habitat. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criteria C/D1.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type and it is therefore assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
Though this habitat has a patchy distribution, it is assessed as Least Concern (LC) at the European scale since reductions in quantity (around 6%) and quality (moderately strong decline with a severity of 60%, affecting 10% of the extent of the habitat) over the past 50 years have been fairly small and resulted in limited degradation. This outcome is an average of different regional situations, each of them deserving to be assessed separately.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Each biogeographical region should be assessed seperately to better reflect very different contexts. This could lead to a Near Threatened or Vulnerable status in some regions. The relevant regions are: (1) Atlantic limestone pavements in Irel

Contributors:
Habitat definition: R. Delarze
Territorial data: D. Paternoster, J.Capelo & D. Espírito-Santo, R. Delarze, E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, G. Buffa, L. Casella, G. Pezzi, D. Viciani, P. Perrin, A. Mikolajczak, A. ÄŒarni, N. Juvan
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso Del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
Shrub communities of Azores, Madeira and the Canaries dominated or co-dominated by Erica, Daboecia or Calluna that are either i) pioneer, ii) permanent in thin soils or iii) seral or hedge of mature macaronesian forests (i.e. G2.7, G2.3). Although Erica azorica, E. playcodon subsp. pl. and Erica canariensis (= E. arborea sensu auct. can. & mad. non L.) may participate in the G2.7, G2.3 forest habitats, we strictly circumscribe the F4.3 type to the i), ii) and iii) conditions adding also iv) being nanophanerophytic. See also the G2.7 factsheet. This is a heterogeneous habitat with relation to biogeography, composition, structure and ecological context. Two main subtypes should be considered:
1) Azorean heathland. Azorean heahlands include several variants. i) A community dominated by Daboecia azorica with Thymus caespititius sitrictly permanent in pyroclast or volcanic rock nutrient-poor acidic leptosols, in the supratemperate belt of the Pico mountain (Pico island); ii) permanent communities of Calluna vulgaris with Huperzia dentata in recent lava fields (sometimes with post-XV century age); iii) Erica azorica pioneer communities that colonize former patches of Juniperus brevifolia mesotemperate microforest (G3.9c – Culcito macrocarpae-Juniperenion brevifoliae suballiance) and that collapsed by gravitational disturbance, i.e. catastrophic soil mass movements removing the juniper microforest, its  blanket bog, the peat layer, and the placic (iron-pan) horizon. This heath is part of a ‘cyclic-climax’ dynamics that will lead again, by sucession, to juniper microforest and the above referred  geomorphology; iv) Thermotemperate, occasionally thermomediterranean (S. Miguel island)  low altitude, Erica azorica  with Morella faya (= Myrica faya) heathland seral of Picconia azorica mature woodlands (G2.3 – Myrico fayae-Pittosporion undulatti) or permanent community in leptosols and rock outcrops or younger lava fields. A special variant of the later case are the Corema azorica termophyllous heaths in lava-fields up to 20 m.s.m.
2) Madeiran and Canarian heathland. Several variants of the habitat can be recognized. i) Shrub , sometimes tall-shrub, communities dominated by Erica canariensis, E. platycodon subsp. platycodon or E. platycodon subsp. maderincola along with Morella faya, Ilex canariensis (and sometimes in Madeira Picconia excelsa) that are the tall hedge of the laurel /heathy  forests (G2.7, G23 – Ixantho-Laurion, Sibthorpio-Clethrion and Polysticho-Ericion) or many times their first seral stage (they are included in Myrico-Ericion in both archipelagos). Therefore, sometimes they include elements of the laurel forest (Laurus, Prunus, Viburnum, etc.). The Erica platycodon subsp. maderincola mantles of tree-heath forests in the summits of Madeira are, nevertheless, species-poor. In thin, rocky or dry soils it can have a permanent character. ii) Heath / broom communities that are, in general, seral stages of laurus /heathy forest, in concrete:-  the second seral stage following the Myrico-Ericion stage. In steep, near-vertical slopes, they are admitted to be permanent communities. Along with the Erica species mentioned in 2) of low height, it also includes Erica maderensis (summits of Madeira only) and several species of genus Teline, Adenocarpus, Argyranthemum, Echium, Chamaecytisus that can be co-dominant in the heath /broom variant (see characteristic species, flora).
Indicators of good quality:
As its biogeography and ecological is so diverse, there isn´t a unique set of bioindicators of degradation. Thus, on each habitat stance, the loss of characteristic set of bioindicators must be evaluated in comparison to well-conserved descriptions of it (published phytosociological tables, for instance). In general, poorer versions tend to be dominated by just one or two species, few characteristics, less elements of the laurel /heathy forest and more plants of grassy stages. Also, the presence of aliens tends to be greater. In the case of the Azores: Pittosporum undulatum, Clethra arborea, Melaleuca sp. pl., Metrosideros excelsa, Banksia integrifolia, Solanum mauritianum, Laurus azorica x nobilis, Hedychium gardneranum, Criptomeria japonica (shrubby), Acacia sp. pl.; in the case of Madeira and the Canaries: Ulex, Cytisus scoparius, Arundo, Acacia, Hackea, Callotropis, Opuntia, Ailanthus, Eucalyptus, etc..
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: For subtype #1): Daboecia azorica (dom.), Erica azorica (dom.), Thymus caespititius (dom.), Calluna vulgaris (dom.), Dyphasiastrum maderense, Huperzia dentata, Huperzia suberecta, Palhinhaea cernua, Grammitis marginella subsp. azorica, Hypericum foliosum, Oreopteris limbosperma, Vaccinium cylindraceum (dom.), Corema azorica (dom.). Also those of habitat G2.7 in the Azores tend to occur to some extent, especially: Euphorbia stygiana, Myrsine retusa, Viburnum treleasi and Ilex azorica, Rubia agostinhoi (s. str.) For subtype #2) : Erica canariensis (= E. arborea sensu auct. can. & mad. non L.), Erica platycodon subsp. platycodon, E. platycodon subsp. maderincola, Erica maderensis, Morella faya (=Myrica faya), Ilex canariensis, Picconia excelsa, Marcetella maderensis, Andryala pinnatifida subsp. pinnnatifida, Bencomia caudata, Cedronella canariensis, Hypericum inodorum, Rubia fruticosa subsp. periclymenum, Bystropogon canariensis, Bystropogon punctatum, Dracunculus canariensis, Gesnouinia arborea, Hypericum grlandulosum, Hypericum grandifolium, Phyllis nobla, Sideritis canariensis, Sideritis macrostachys, Rhamnus glanulosus, Smilax canariensis, Canarina canariensis, Convolvulus canariensis, Cryptotaenia elegans, Adenocarpus foliosus, Chamaecytisus proliferus, Chamaecytisus canariae, Chamaecytisus palmensis, Cistus chinamandensis, Teline canariensis, Teline pallida, Teline uerifolia, Teline splendens, Teline stenopetala subsp. microphylla, Teline stenopetala subsp. stenopetala, Teline maderensis, Argyranthemum pinnatifidum subps. pinnatifidum, Argyranthemum pinnatifidum subsp. montanum, Bunium brevifolium, Echium candicans, Plantago arborescens subsp. costae, Plantago malato-belizii, Sideritis candicans.

Classification:
EUNIS:
F4.3 Macaronesian heath.
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Daboecion azoricae 
Culcito macrocarpae-Juniperion brevifoliae (part).
Myrico fayae-Ericion arboreae (canariensis)
Telino canariensis-Adenocarpion foliolosi
Bystropogono puncatati-Telinion maderensis
Annex 1:
*4050 Endemic Macaronesian heaths
Emerald:
F4.3 Macaronesian heaths
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.4 Temperate shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This type exclusively occurs in the Macaronesian region (Azores, Madeira and Canaries archipelagos).

Trends in Quantity:
This habitat has increased in the recent decades as a result of some farmland abandonment in the midlands of the Macaronesian Islands. Due to its pioneer character, it has established in many of the old fields. Regeneration after logging of pine and eucalyptus plantations and the cutting of the lauroid forest also has caused an increase in its extent. In any case, if no disturbance (logging) happens for a long time, this heath will evolve toward lauroid forest and reduce in area.

Trends in Quality:
The current tendency of the quality of this habitat is positive as far as many sites are still in a developmental stage after release of disturbance, but in the future it can be expected that maturation will advance and many of the sites will be in a transitional stage towards a natural forest.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat lies totally (100%) within the EU28 territory.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a No decline in this habitat as it is a secondary vegetation which establishes when disturbance regime releases. Thus it is now increasing due to the abandonment of many steep areas from sheep and goat herding, logging of pine and eucal

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is restricted to the Macaronesian archipelagos under high humidity conditions and thus is restricted to that area. It can occupy large sites however.

Pressures and Threats:
The most relevant threats are the pine and eucalyptus plantations, the invasion of exotic species of flora and fauna (rats), particularly intense in the Azores archipelago, and the climatic change with decrease of precipitation.

Conservation and Management:
For the habiat it is best to keep the human intervention at a moderate level of logging and low frequency burning. In this way succession towards forest is limited.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
As a habitat linked to a quite high disturbance level, its recovery after disturbing episodes is relatively quick.

Summary:
This habitat includes shrub communities in the Azores, Madeira and Canaries dominated by bushy Erica, Daboecia or Calluna spp. that are pioneer or permanent on thin soils or seral or marginal to mature Macaronesian forests. Variation on the different island groups is considerable and related to local climate and topography, reflecting also the distinctive biogeography. Intense disturbance from grazing, firewood cutting and afforestation reduced this type to marginal situations in the past but now, with the rural abandonment, it is improving in extent and quality. Where artificial disturbance does not recover, the heaths will progress to forest.

References:
Arco, M.J., Wilpret de la Torre, W., Pérez de Paz, P.L., Rodríguez, O., Acebes, J.R., García, A., Martín, V.E., Reyes, J.A., Salas, M., Díaz, M.A., Bermejo, J.A., González, R., Cabrera, M.V. & García, S. (2006). Mapa de vegetación de Canarias. Santa Cruz de Tenerife. GRAFCAN.
Capelo, J. (2006, ed.). A paisagem vegetal de ilha da Madeira. Quercetea 6: 3-200.
Rodríguez Delgado, O. (2003, ed.). Apuntes sobre flora y vegetación de Gran Canaria. Guía de la excursión geobotánica de las XIX Jornadas de Fitosociología y Simposio Internacional de la FIP, Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria (Medio Ambiente y Aguas), Gran Canaria, 271 pp.

Criterion A Text:
Currently, a stable situation in quantity has been reported in most of the cases, with a low decrease expected for the next future in some others.

Criterion B Text:
Geographic distribution encompasses the archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira and Canaries, in which a high number of localities are found. Although it has a restricted distribution, the EOO and AOO values and number of locations are higher than the thresholds for criteria B1, B2 and B3.

Criterion C/D Text:
The quality assessment results in a low score due to the stable situation reported.

Synthesis:
The situation of this type does not present any threat nor concern as far as disturbance regime does not change its current tendency and climate maintains its rainfall regime constant over the Macaronesian archipelagos. The conclusion therefore is Least Concern (LC).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
There are two main subtypes, one from the Azores and another from the Madeira and Canaries. Both are in a similar conservation state.

Contributors:
Habitat description: J. Capelo
Territorial data: J. Capelo, D. Espírito-Santo, J. Loidi
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Description:
Moss and lichen tundra is a naturally treeless habitat restricted to areas with permafrost and characterized by a relatively thick and dense cover of mosses. Mean annual temperatures range from -7 to -1 °C. More important for the growing period of vegetation, which only starts in early summer, are the mean July temperatures, ranging from 2-3 °C in the north to 4-6 °C in the middle-arctic zone. Average annual precipitation is between 200 and 800 mm.
In Northern Europe, the habitat type is typically found in the lowlands and along the coast on acidic to neutral Mesozoic and Paleozoic bedrock (Svalbard, Bjørnøya) with Tomentypnum nitens and Warnstorfia sarmentosa as dominating species, while Racomitrium lanuginosum dominates on neutral to alkaline younger volcanic rocks (Jan Mayen, Iceland). The relief varies considerably. More eastwards in northern Russia the habitat occurs mainly in a flat or slightly hilly landscape. Permafrost leads to micro-patterns with slightly different relief within the habitat.
Characteristic vascular plants in Moss and lichen tundra are the dwarf shrubs Dryas octopetala and Cassiope tetragona, and Salix herbacea and S. polaris (in respectively neutral to alkaline and acidic snowbed-like, moist-soils), the sedges Carex rupestris, C. nardina, C. misandra, and Luzula arctica (on neutral to alkaline soils), as well as Luzula confusa (on acidic soils) and Saxifraga oppositifolia. While the vascular flora of the arctic region is relatively species poor, high numbers of lichens, mosses and fungi may be found. The species composition varies with changes in bedrock (alkaline - acidic), soil type (rocky to mesic), snow-cover and exposition.
On Svalbard four main types of Moss tundra may be distinguished: (1) Wet Moss tundra on calcareous bedrock, dominated by Tomentypnum nitens. (2) Dry Moss Tundra on calcareous soils with dominance of Dicranum angustum, (3) acidic Moss tundra with Polytrichum strictum, and (4) Wet Moss tundra on acidic bedrock dominated by Sphagnum squarrosum. Typical lichens of this tundra habitat are Cetrariella delisei (dominant on stony sites), Cladonia mitis, Cetraria nivalis and Sphaerophorus globosus (on acidic substrates). On Iceland, in the subarctic region, species-poor Racomitrium lanuginosum dominated habitats occur on relatively old lava. Such habitats are locally called ‘moss heath’ but are included here in ‘Moss and lichen tundra’. Vascular plants in these moss fields are heathland species, like Carex bigelowii or Empetrum hermaphroditum. The arctic island Jan Mayen is largely dominated by moss beds of Racomitrium lanuginosum and R. canescens, while – less frequently – also R. fasciculare occurs in this habitat. Here, very few plants are able to germinate in this moss tundra, that is only more open in places where it has been eroded, like on steep slopes. The habitat is found on dry slopes, but also on more foggy slopes.
Transitions occur towards more sparsely vegetated polar deserts (habitat H5.1b) in dry areas, tundra mires (habitat D4.2 with Deschampsia alpina, Carex stans and Eriophorum scheuchzeri) in wet locations, snow beds (habitat E4.1 and F2.1) in hollows and depressions with long lasting snow cover (dominated by Poa alpina and Salix reticulata), sparsely-vegetated stony riverbeds in valleys (habitat C3.5d), communities with different Potentilla species on screes (habitat H2.1 and H2.2), and shrub tundra with heathland species (F1.1) on Iceland.
Moss and lichen tundra is a circumpolar habitat type within the arctic regions of Russia, Canada, Alaska and Greenland. In the EU28+, the middle and northern arctic zone is limited to the Svalbard archipelago and to the islands of Jan Mayen and Bjørnøya. On Svalbard it is limited to a relatively small percentage of the total area, as the largest part is covered by glaciers or polar desert (type H5.1b). Additionally the habitat covers parts of Iceland, in the subarctic region. In addition to permafrost, moss tundra on Svalbard depends on the natural fertilizers birds and Svalbard reindeer. The typical Moss tundra can be found under bird cliffs but it is common in all parts of the north-arctic tundra zone on Svalbard.
Indicators of quality:
In good conditions the habitat shows the following characteristics:
Very low cover of (dwarf) shrubs,

Diversity of microhabitats due to frost patterns (polygons) and cryoturbation

High diversity in mosses and lichens

Absence of human disturbance


Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Campanula uniflora, Carex bigelowii subsp. ensifolia, Carex misandra, Carex nardina, Carex rupestris, Cassiope hypnoides, Cassiope tetragone, Cerastium nigrescens subsp. arcticum, Deschampsia alpina, Dryas octopetala, Hierochloë alpina, Luzula arctuata, Luzula confusa, Pedicularis dasyantha, Salix herbacea, Salix polaris, Saxifraga oppositifolia, Silene acaulis
Mosses: Aulacomnium turgidum, Dicranum elongatum, Encalypta alpina, Hylocomium splendens, Polytrichum species, Pseudocalliergon turgescens, Racomitrium ericoides, Racomitrium lanuginosum, Sanionia uncinata, Tomenthypnum nitens
Lichens: Cladina mitis, Cetraria nivalis, Cetrariella delisei, Lecidea ementiens, Ochrolechia frigida

Classification:
EUNIS:
F1.2 Moss and lichen tundra
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Kobresio-Dryadion Nordhagen 1936 (= Caricion nardinae Nordhagen 1935) (on basic/neutral soils)
Luzulion arcuatae Elvebakk 1985 (included in Ranunculo-Oxyrion didynae Nordhagen 1943) (ion acidic soils)
Racomitrion lanuginosi Krusenstjerna 1945 (cryptogamic community)
Annex 1:
--
Emerald:
--
MAES:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.1. Subarctic shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is the typical and dominating habitat of the Arctic biogeographical region

Map Description:
The map rather complete, based on the potential vegetation which is similar to actual vegetation for this habitat. Data source: BOHN.

Comment EU28:
Not occur in EU28, only at Svalbard and Jan Mayen

Comment EU28+:
The EOO is less than 50000 km2 but there are no decline

Trends in Quantity:
Over time the habitat probably is stable in trend of quantity. With the forseen climate change it will increase in area where presently glaciers and polar desert occur, and decrease in area in other sites due to competition from Arctic shrub tundra (F1.1).

Trends in Quality:
The habitat is probably stable in quality over the last decades.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
0%. The habitat does not occur in the EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
It has a relatively large EOO and it is not sure that it is declining.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat does not occupy a small area.

Pressures and Threats:
In the future climate change will affect the habitat but it is hard to tell in what way. The most likely scenario will be a northward shift of the vegeation belts, but it will be a very slow process. It is unclear whether the reduction due to shrub encroachment and a possible increase in unvegetated glaciers and polar deserts will result in a stable trend in future or a declining or increasing trend.

Conservation and Management:
No measures needed at the moment. If there will be changes because of changing climate, it is hard to do anything.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
This is one of the most stable and still natural habitats in Europe. As arctic processes occur very slow, the time for recovery after destruction is extremely long.

Summary:
Moss and lichen tundra is a naturally treeless habitat restricted to areas with permafrost, confined in the EU28+ to subarctic Iceland, Svalbard, Jan Mayen and Bjørnøya. It is typically found on acidic to neutral sedimentaries or younger volcanic rocks in the lowlands and along the coast, though the relief is very variable. The vegetation is dominated by extensive deep moss carpets with scattered dwarf shrubs, sedges and herbs, the composition varying with soil type and snow cover. Freeze-thaw can produce patterned ground and vegetation mosaics. With climate change, the future is uncertain.

References:
Dierssen, K. 1996. Vegetation Nordeuropas. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart.
Elvebakk, A. (1994). A survey of plant associations and alliances from Svalbard. Journal of Vegetation Science 5: 791–802
Elvebakk, A. in U. Bohn et al. (2003, eds). Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas. Bundesambt für Naturschutz, Bonn, pg  109-112.
Johanson, B., Tømmervik, H., Karlsen, S. R. and Elvebakk, R. 2010. Vegetation mapping of Svalbard, Arctic Norway, utilizing Landsat TM/ETM+ data. NORUT – NINA – UiTø.
Lindgaard, A. &Henriksen, S. 2011 (eds). The 2011 Norwegian Red list for ecosystems and habiat types. Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, Trondheim. 124 p.
Virtanen R., Lundberg P. A., Moen J. & Oksanen L. (1997). Topographic and altitudinal patterns in plant communities on European arctic islands. Ponatis iz Bioloskega vestnika 17: 95–113.
Virtanen R., Oksanen J., Oksanen L. & Razzhivin V.Y. (2006). Broad-scale vegetation-environment relationships in Eurasian high-latitude areas. Journal of Vegetation Science 17: 519-528.

Criterion A Text:
Few quantitative data are available, but there are no indications of negative trends in the last 50 years. The conclusion for criterion A1 therefore is Least Concern. For the future impacts from climate change are expected, but it is unclear how these will work out.

Criterion B Text:
No decline is known for the habitat, there are many sites, and the EOO and AOO are too large to meet the thresholds of criteria B1, B2 and B3. The conclusion therefore is Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
No trends over the last 50 years are known, but impacts are expected from climate change. It is uncertain in what amount and with what severity these will affect the quality of the habitat. In the Norwegian Red List of Ecosystems the subhabitat "High Arctic Bird Cliffs" (of which the meadow-part may be considered part of the broader unit Moss tundra) has been assessed as Vulnerable under criterion "reduced state", because of a decline in sea-bird populations.

Synthesis:
Based on few quantitative data in combination with expert knowledge, the habitat 'Moss and lichen tundra' is assumed not to meet any threshold of the criteria of the Red List, resulting in an overall assessment of Least Concern (LC). Many of the subcriteria are indicated as 'Data Deficient'.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
A main division would be in the true, species-rich moss and lichen tundra of Svalbard, and the - rather distinctive - Racomitrium dominated volcanic fields of Iceland and Jan Mayen. It is likely that - with present data - both subtypes would b

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Kapfer & J. Janssen
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, C. Bita-Nicolae, F. Bioret, A. ÄŒarni, J. Capelo, P. Dimopoulos, J.A.M. Janssen & J. Loidi


Habitat Description:
Snow packs are immobile near-permanent habitats that may persist in the limit of perpetual snow, in particular in avalanche corridors. However, they are susceptible to disappear completely during hot summers, thus excluding accumulation of ice. In spite of the extreme conditions of the habitat, some organisms do grow in this hostile habitat. This is the case of several cryosestonic unicellular algae, whose proliferation gives a reddish or greenish colour to snow packs. Some animals complete part of their life cycle on melting snow, e.g. chip snow (Boreus hyemalis, a Mecoptera) and several Coleoptera and Diptera, where they feed of pollen grains, frozen insects, etc. In Fennoscandia, reindeer gather on snow pack areas for the hottest summer days. Snow pack habitats are found mainly in high altitudes or latitudes. In Europe, the summits of the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Scandes, the Carpathian range, Balkan mountains and the Caucasus are concerned, as well as the arctic regions.
Indicators of good quality:
Quality indicators are difficult to propose for this habitat. Animal species cited below could be candidates.
Characteristic species:
Flora
Algae: Chlamydomonas nivalis, Chrococcus sp.pl., Chlorogonium elongatum, Chloromonas alpine, Chloromonas brevispina, Chloromonas nivalis, Chloromonas pichinchae, Chloromonas platystigma, , Haematococcus pluvialis, Koliella nivalis, Koliella tatrae,  Prasicola crispa, Stichococcus baciliaris, Trebouxia arboricola, Trebouxia jamesii 
Fungi: e.g. Selenotila nivalis
Fauna
Ascoliocerus hyperboreus (Elateridae), Oreonebria bremii (Carabidae), Boreus hyemalis (Mecoptera)

Classification:
EUNIS:
H4.1 Snow packs
Euroveg Checklist:
Mesotaenion berggrenii Bültmann et Takeuchi in Bültmann et al. 2014
Annex 1:
8340 Permanent glaciers (this Annex 1 habitat type applies to a geographically and altitudinal wider range of snow or ice-dominated habitats. H4.1 is therefore narrower circumscribed than 8340)
Emerald:
-
MAES-2:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
-

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is distributed in the highest altitudes of Alpine region and arctic part of Boreal biogeographical region, under specific climate conditions only.

Map Description:
No distribution data is available. The distribution of glaciers is given as the potential distribution. Data: Art17, BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
Especially in mountain ranges at lower latitude, e.g. at Bulgaria, Italy, Spain, the decrease of area of the snow packs is huge. In Grand Sasso (IT) the existence of Calderone Glacier (it is not the true glacier but permanent snow deposition = neviera) is expected max to the year 2020. Similar situation is in Pyrenees (ESP), and also in Carpathians (RO, SK) etc. It is a direct result of global warming. For decline there is no real data on the past changes but it is assumed that the area of snow packs has declined, e.g., in Finland at least 20% from the 1950s and that the decline has accelerated in recent years; in Germany the decline is of about 40%, in Switzerland 50% and more to the south, in Slovenia 90% (see territorial data).

Trends in Quality:
No recent and accurate data are available, nevertheless the decrease of these habitats is expected and registered in all countries. Probably, hand by hand, the quality of habitats, e.g. degradation of populations of some invertebrates or full disappearance of some plant and animal taxa is near to reality. Continuing decline is expected due to global warming.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The current distribution is (or is expected) in these 11 EU28 countries: AT, BG, DE, ES, FI, FR, IT, RO, SE, SI, SK, and in 4 EU28+ countries: CH, IS, ME, NO, where data from Norway and Switzerland could play a important portion of the whole area of snow packs (30 %?). Outside EU28+, the type is found in Greenland, Russia (Polar Ural, Caucasus Mts).

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a large natural range, although following regression. No quantitative data are available for this habitat with high inter-annual variability. During years with hot summer temperatures in combination with relatively lower snowfalls,

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has a large natural range, although the actual covered surface can be rather restricted. Especially in mountain ranges at lower latitude, e.g. at Bulgaria, Italy, Spain, the decrease of area of the snow packs is huge. In Grand Sasso (IT) th

Pressures and Threats:
Snow patches have been categorized as EN in the assessment of threatened habitat types in Finland (Norokorpi et al. 2008) and this trend is significant for all of the EU countries. The main pressure is warming climate, solar radiation and changes in precipitation (snow cover). Those parameters can oscillate from year to year (interannual variability), but longer trends during several decades indicate a decrease of the snow packs habitats. Beside global increase of summer temperatures, the air pollution of snow packs due to microparticles from industry and transport, and acid rain (pH changes) could be a reason for threats. The direct pressure is represented by tourism, mountaineering and skiing in some localities.

Conservation and Management:
Snow packs have geographically and climatically limited distribution. Increasing temperature and decreasing of snow precipitation are a limitation for persistence of this habitat and can not be regulated by special management. Usually, these habitats are concentrated on suitable localities e.g. shady gorges, deep valleys at north facing slopes at higher altitudes, where a total exclusion of access of human beings is recommended.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The existence of snow packs is strongly related to winter and summer temperature regime. Under good conditions (snow cover, cold summers and winters) the recovery of snow packs is possible, and these environment sustains also specialized chionophile algae, bryophytes and invertebrates.

Summary:
This habitat is an immobile mass of snow, found mainly in high latitudes or altitudes, concentrated in sunless situations like shady gorges, persistent within the limits of permanent snow but elsewhere susceptible to melting in hot summers, especially if the preceding snowfalls have been light. Some bryophytes can survive in such a habitat, an abundance of unicellular algae can colour the snow and certain insects feed on material released by melting. Air pollution and acid rain threaten the habitat and continuing decline is expected in whole EU due to the global warming. Direct pressures are tourism, mountaineering and skiing in some localities. Under good conditions (snow cover, cold summers and winters) the recovery of snow packs is possible.

References:
Cepák, V. and Lukavský, J. 2013. Cryoseston of the Pirin Mountains, Bulgaria. Acta Botanica Croatica 72(2): 257-268.
Chueca, J. & Julián, A., 2004. Relationship between solar radiation and the development and morphology of small cirque glaciers (Maladeta Mountain massif, Central Pyrenees, Spain).Geografinska Annaler 86A: 81-89.
Hågvar, S. 2010. A review of Fennoscandian arthropods living on and in snow. European Journal of Entomology 107(3): 281-298.
Hindák, F. and Komárek, J. 1968. Cultivation of the cryosestonic alga Koliella tatrae (Kol) Hind. Biologia Plantarum 10: 95-97.
Kovinen, S., Kaarlejärvi, E., Jylhä, K. and Räisänen, J. 2012. Spatiotemporal distribution of threatened high-altitude snowbed and snow patch habitats in warming climate. Environmental Research Letters, 7: (IOP Publishing 9 pp.).
Kol, E. and Eurola, S. 1973. Red snow in the Kilpisjärvi region, North Finland. Astarte 6: 75-86.
Norokorpi, Y., Eeronheimo, H., Eurola, S., Heikkinen, R., Johansson, P., Kumpula, J., Mäkelä, K., Neuvonen, S., Sihvo, J., Tynys, S. and Virtanen, R. 2008. Tunturit Suomen luontotyyppien uhanalaisuus (Assessment of Threatened Habitat Types in Finland), pp. 467-541. In: Raunio, A., Schulman, A. and Kontula, T. eds. Suomen luontotyyppien uhanalaisuus: Osa 2: Luontotyyppien kuvaukset. Suomen ympäristökeskus, Helsink, Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinky, 572 p.

Criterion A Text:
Decline in habitat area cannot accurately be quantified because no relevant data is available. Especially area information is lacking. Some territorial experts assessed the decline by indicating huge ranges, e.g. between 10-90 %, which does not allow a robust assessment. The average trend without any correction for area is about -45% decline, and therefore it is likely that the overall decline is more than 30%. An even higher trend may be expected for the future, but no quantitative data are available.

Criterion B Text:
Restriction of geographical distribution can not accurately be quantified because no distribution data are available. It is likely however that the EOO is larger than the thresholds for criterion B1 for both EU28 and EU28+. For the AOO the EU28+ value is also likely to be higher than 50, but for the EU28 this is uncertain. The number of locations is higher than the threshold for B3.

Criterion C/D Text:
The data provided by the territorial experts, although not complete, allowed the calculation of a severe qualitative decline (around 51% in extent, with a severity of 77%), qualifying this habitat type as Near Threatened based on Criteria C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat.

Synthesis:
The snow packs represent rare and limited habitats strongly dependent on climatic conditions. Under global warming they are generally considered as Vulnerable (VU) in Europe because of declines in area and quality. They are especially htreatened on the southern limit of occurrence, in the Alps and Pyrenees, where they might be locally assessed as Endangered or even Collapsed (or at least near to disappearance). However, there are no quantitative relevant data yet to support these higher levels of threat.

Contributors:
Type description: R. Delarze
Territorial data:  C. Bita-Nicolaeâ€‹, A. ÄŒarni, R. Delarze, N. Juvan, T. Kontula, J. Loidi, A. Mikolajczak, P. Finck, D. Paternoster, U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Ssymank, R. Tzonev, M. ValachoviÄ
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso Del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
H3.1d Mediterranean siliceous inland cliff

Habitat Description:
Siliceous (rich in quartz and silicate minerals, such as feldspar or mica) rock walls and cliffs in the Mediterranean, with cliff-dwelling vascular plants (chasmophytes), bryophytes, lichens, epi- and endolithic micro-organisms. Siliceous cliffs chiefly consist of igneous rocks, such as granite, diorite and andesite, or of metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss, slate, schist and quartzite. The ability of plants to root in siliceous cliffs depends on the rock texture, schistosity, moisture content and chemistry. Perennial herbs prevail, many as cushion or rosulate plants, some are succulent. Other common chasmophytes are dwarf shrubs and small ferns. Well represented genera of vascular plants in siliceous inland cliffs all over the Mediterranean are Asplenium, Hieracium and Saxifraga.
Siliceous inland cliffs are less common in the Mediterranean than calcareous cliffs but also rich in rare and/or endemic plants. Plant communities are numerous and, like many of their species, frequently restricted to a single mountain range, larger islands or cliff systems. Overall variation in species composition follows chiefly phyto-geographical patterns and reflects evolutionary history.  Local variations are typically due to the rock type, exposition, moisture and cliff height. Many species are poor dispersers and plant communities require long time to establish. Most of the characteristic species are not found in anthropogenic habitats, such as walls.
Mediterranean siliceous inland cliffs occur in the western, southern, central and eastern parts of the Iberian peninsula, southern France, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, southern Italy, Albania, Greece, a few Aegean islands (e.g. Samothraki), and Mediterranean Turkey. Included are all levels from the Mediterranean coastal areas to the high mountains.
Indicators of quality:
Mediterranean siliceous inland cliffs harbour many local and regional endemics. Populations of such species indicate high habitat quality. As there is much regional variation in chasmophytic vegetation and species richness the habitat quality of a local cliff or cliff system must be seen in relation to the regional chasmophytic species pool: the higher the proportion, the better the quality. Cliff habitats are naturally protected due to their poor accessibility but they may be destroyed through rock control structures and quarrying. Abandoned siliceous quarries are generally, even after decades, much poorer in species and lower habitat quality compared to the natural cliffs.
The following characteristics may be used as indicators of favourable quality:
• Occurrence of a representative set of rare species, in particular narrow or regional endemics
• Presence of different aspects of rock walls, different exposure, moisture and rock structures such as vertical rock faces, overhangs, cavities, rock shelters, and ledges
• Contact with natural habitats such as screes, boulder fields, rock shrubs and pioneer grasslands
• Absence of quarrying and control structures
• Absence of garbage dumping and nutrient input from above the cliff
• Absence of rock climbing facilities
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Alchemilla (crenulata, saxatilis, serratisaxatilis), Allosorus (hispanicus, tinaei), Androsace vandellii, Aquilegia bernardii, Armeria leucocephala, Asarina procumbens, Antirrhinum grosii, Asplenium (adiantum-nigrum, x alternifolium, foreziense, obovatum subsp. billotii, septentrionale, trichomanes subsp. trichomanes), Bufonia macropetala, Campanula samothracica, Castroviejoa frigida, Centaurea avilae, Centranthus nevadensis subsp. nevadensis, Cystopteris fragilis subsp. dickieana, Dianthus sylvestris (subsp. longicaulis, subsp. siculus), Draba (dubia, loiseleurii), Dryopteris pallida, Erigeron paolii, Erodium rupicola, Festuca sardoa, Hieracium (carpetanum, schmidtii subsp. graniticum), Hypericum cuisinii, Jasione crispa subsp. mariana, Leucanthemum (corsicum, monspeliense), Linaria capraria, Minuartia recurva su bsp. condensata, Murbeckiella boryi, Narcissus rupicola subsp. rupicola, Phyteuma serratum, Polygonum icaricum, Potentilla crassinervia, Saxifraga (genesiana, nevadensis, pedemontana subsp. cervicornis, pentadactylis subsp. almanzorii, pentadactylis subsp. willkommiana, sibirica, vayredana), Scabiosa corsica, Sempervivum minutum, Silene (boryi, foetida, requienii).
Bryophytes: Amphidium mougeotii, Bartramia pomiformis, Diplophyllum albicans, Grimmia (affinis, decipiens, donniana, hartmanii, laevigata, montana, ovalis, trichophylla), Hedwigia (ciliata, stellata), Isothecium alopecuroides, Metzgeria conjugata, Racomitrium (heterostichum, lanuginosum), Tritomaria quinquedentata.
Lichens: Acarospora (fuscata, gallica, macrospora, oligospora, nitrophila, umbilicata, versicolor), Aspicilia (cinerea, simoensis, recedens), Caloplaca (irrubescens, subpallida), Chrysothrix chlorina, Diploicia canescens, Diploschistes scruposus, Lecidea (speirodes, umbonata), Parmelia (mougeotii, verrucilifera), Pertusaria (excludens, flavicans), Rhizocarpon (distinctum, epipsilum, eupetraeum, geographicum, obscuratum, polycarpum), Rimularia insularis, Stereocaulon evolutum, Trapelia placodioides, Umbilicaria (grisea, polyrrhiza, subglabra).

Classification:
EUNIS:
H3.1 Acid siliceous inland cliffs
EuroVeg Checklist:
Asarinion procumbentis (Br.-Bl. in Meier et Br.-Bl. 1934) Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1952
Asplenio billotii-Dianthion godroniani Rameau ex Mucina in Mucina et al. 2014
Cheilanthion hispanicae Rivas Goday 1956
Hieracion carpetani González-Albo 1941
Linarion caprariae Foggi et al. 2006
Pohlio crudae-Asplenion septentrionalis S. Brullo et Siracusa in S. Brullo et al. 2003
Polygonion icarici Horvat in Horvat, GlavaÄ et Ellenberg ex Bergmeier et al. 2011
Polypodion serrati Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1952
Potentillion crassinerviae Gamisans 1975
Saxifragion nevadensis Rivas Goday et Rivas-Mart. 1971
Annex 1:
8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation
Emerald:
H3.1 Acid siliceous inland cliffs
MAES-2:
Sparsely or unvegetated land
IUCN:
6 Rocky areas

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat represents an outstanding example of the Mediterranean biogeographic region due to the occurrence of a pool of mostly endemic species, characterized by a high ecological specialization and a remarkable phytogeographical and evolutionary value.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, except possibly for rare occurrences along the Eastern Adriatic coast, the Greek mainland and the Aegean. Data sources: Art17.

Trends in Quantity:
Based on the provided data, the habitat is slightly increased (extent) over the last 50 years (EU28: +1,7%; EU28+: +1,7%). Thus, it can be considered stable. Although no figure or estimation is provided for the future trends, it can be realistically considered stable (extent).

Trends in Quality:
Past, historical and future trends cannot be estimated due to the lacking of data/information. Extent of degradation and severity of degradation are unknown.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
No relevant variation occurred over the last 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat cannot occur everywhere, since its establishment requires very specific climatic and geo-morphological features. Given that, the total area occupied is naturally very limited.

Pressures and Threats:
This habitat type is very weakly affected by human activities, especially on mountain stands or on inaccessible sites. Despite this, disturbances may be the result of sport and leisure activities (e.g. rock-climbing), mining and quarrying (at lower elevations), invasive/alien plants (at low altitudes), and cliff securing.

Conservation and Management:
The best management action for this highly natural habitat is to leave it simply untouched, just avoiding any human interference with its natural processes. Luckily, cliffs are mostly falling within protected areas. Information about the biological value of this habitat to the potential “users”, e.g. climbers, should be extensively provided. Increase public awareness about the biological relevance of such apparently inhospitable environments is important in order to make more effective conservation efforts.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Unless physically destroyed, recovery of a cliff is possible provided that it is potentially connected with similar environments and that the natural geo-morphological processes are not hampered. As many plants of this habitat type are poor dispersers, the species composition is expected to remain impoverished even after initial recovery.

Summary:
This habitat includes siliceous rock walls and cliffs from the lowlands to high mountains in the Mediterranean, formed chiefly of igneous or metamorphic origin which offer a diversity of niches for colonisation depending on the rock texture, schistosity, moisture content and chemistry. Typically they have cushion or rosulate vascular plants, some of them succulent, ferns and dwarf shrubs, with bryophytes, lichens, epi- and endolithic micro-organisms. Mediterranean siliceous inland cliffs are even less common than base-rich inland cliffs. Towards foothills and the lowlands, the habitat is more affected by human disturbances, especially in terms of species composition. High mountain cliffs are usually well preserved and feature a high degree of naturalness, with  most of the localities occurring within nature reserves or protected areas. Most threats relate to securing cliffs over road and rail sides, sport and leisure activities, especially rock-climbing, and, at lower elevations, mining, quarrying and invasive/alien plants. Knowledge and scientifically-based management of this habitat type would be necessary in cases of strong disturbances on its structure as well as for its restoration.

References:
PÃ©rez-Alberti, A., and LÃ³pez-Bedoya, J. 2009. 8220 Laderas y salientes rocosos silÃ­ceos con vegetaciÃ³n casmofÃ­tica. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, Madrid, SPAIN

Criterion A Text:
Based on the provided territorial data, no reduction occurred over the last 50 years.

Criterion B Text:
Both EOO and AOO are well above the thresholds.

Criterion C/D Text:
Past, historical and future trends cannot be estimated due to the lacking of data/information. Extent of degradation and severity of degradation are not known. Despite the lacking of data, it can be realistically assumed that the quality of this habitat type is rather stable, similar to what has been observed for its total extent.

Criterion E Text:
No data to evaluate risk of collapse is available.

Synthesis:
The habitat qualifies for a Least Concern status (LC) since no reduction in quantity occurred over the last 50 years. Quality trends (past, historical and future) cannot be estimated due to the lacking of data/information.

Contributors:
Type description: E. Bergmeier & G. Giusso del Galdo
Territorial data: J. Loidi, J. Capelo, D. Espírito-Santo, O. Argagnon, P. Dimopoulos, S. Bagella, D. Gigante, G. Giusso del Galdo, C. Marcenò, S. Sciandrello, D. Viciani.
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso Del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
Plant species growing on wet cliffs are exposed to very specific ecological conditions. They occur on north-faced, very damp, dripping, overhanging or vertical calcareous rocks, in shady places. Species are mainly hygrophytic and shade-resistant. Communities are rich in ferns and mosses, on the more constantly watered places also green and blue-green algae occur. The habitat is strongly depending on the period of watering and appears on very small areas.
The habitat is found in temperate and in Mediterranean regions. In many sites, the areas of the habitat are very small and isolated. Wet cliffs of the Macaronesian islands are considered under habitat H3.3.
Indicators of good quality:
Main threats are various human activities that change the water regime.  The following characteristics may be considered as indicators of good quality:
species richness of the cliffs and presence of the characteristic species
presence of habitat rare species at their typical frequency
constant supply of water

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Adiantum capillus-veneris, Alchemilla glabra, Asplenium scolopendrium, A. viride, Aurinia saxatilis, Blackstonia perfoliata, Borago pygmaea, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Carex brachystachys, C. distans, Cystopteris alpina, C. fragilis, Dianthus nitidus, Dittrichia viscosa, Eupatorium cannabinum, Ficus carica, Hypericum hircinum, H. nummularium, Moehringia muscosa, Mycelis muralis, Phegopteris connectilis, Phyllitis scolopendrium, Pinguicula grandiflora subsp. coenocantabrica, Pinguicula hirtiflora, Pinguicula longifolia, Pinguicula mundi, Pinguicula vallisneriifolia, Polypodium interjectum, Samolus valerandi, Saxifraga paniculata, Viola palustris.
Bryophytes: Conocephalum conicum, Eucladium verticillatum, Palustriella commutata (=Cratoneurum commutatum).

Classification:
EUNIS:
H3.4 Wet inland cliffs
EuroVegChecklist:
Asplenio celtiberici-Saxifragion cuneatae Rivas-Mart. in Loidi et Fernández Prieto 1986
Violo biflorae-Cystopteridion alpinae Fernandez Casas 1970
Polypodion serrati Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1952
Arenarion balearicae O. de Bolòs et Molinier 1969
Hymenophyllion tunbrigensis Tx. in Tx. et Oberd. 1958
Thelipterido pozoi-Woodwardion radicantis F. Prieto et C. Aguiar in F. Prieto et al. 2012
Adiantion Br.-Bl. ex Horvatic 1934
Pinguiculion longifoliae Fernandez Casas 1970
Annex 1:
No relationship
Emerald:
No relationship
MAES-2:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
6 Rocky areas [e.g. inland cliffs, mountain peaks]

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type occurs in temperate and Mediterranean regions. Because of very specific ecological conditions the sites are often isolated from each other and the habitats are mostly restricted to small areas.

Map Description:
The map is rather incomplete, amongst others in Romania, Belgium, Luxembourg, Greece, Finland, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Spain and Macaronesia. Data sources: EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
According to the provided data, the calculated trend in quantity over the last decades is stable. However, due to the high uncertainty in the reported data and due to missing data of several countries the calculation of trends at a European scale is rather uncertain. Some countries (Bulgaria, France, Slovakia) reported a slight decline in area, but those data couldn't be included in the calculation because no values were provided. The decrease in area seems to be more critical in lowlands.

Trends in Quality:
According to the provided data, the calculated trend in quality over the last decades is decreasing. The extent of degradation for EU28 countries is 1% with 10% severity of degradation and 2.5% with 57% severity for EU28+ countries. The calculations are only based on data from four or five countries. Due to the high uncertainty in the reported data and due to missing data of several countries the calculation of trends at a European scale is rather uncertain. Many countries indicated a decrease in quality, but the data couldn't be included in the calculations due to the absence of mandatory values. Hence, the calculated trends in quality are supposed to underestimate the real situation at a European scale.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Approximately 80%. This is a rough estimate. Outside the EU28 the habitat occurs in Norway and on the Balkan peninsula. Outside the EU28+ it is found in Russia, Ukraine and Turkey.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is in almost all sites occurring on relative small spots.

Pressures and Threats:
The pressures and threats affecting the particular countries are rather diverse. A major threat is related to outdoor sports: especially mountaineering and rock climbing cause disturbances on the native flora and fauna and the cleaning of routes leads to changes in the structure and functioning of the habitats by removal of vegetation and loose rocks. The securing of cliffs along transportation corridors or in urbanised areas has more or less the same effect on the habitats. Further important threats are mining and quarrying, landslides (both simply leading to the destruction of sites) and human induced changes in hydraulic conditions. Changes of abiotic conditions due to climate change has also been reported as a major threat, that probably will gain influence in the future.

Conservation and Management:
As the habitat type is highly natural the main conservation strategy is the prevention of disturbance and destruction of sites. The protection of habitats and corresponding species is realised best in protected areas. The habitat is strongly depending on water regimes and the period of watering. Hence, degraded sites may require management measures concerning the hydrological regime. To avoid further loss and deterioration of sites, these habitats have to be incorporated more strongly in spatial development planning.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
No corresponding Annex 1-type.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Once completely destroyed, the habitat has almost no capacity to recover, as it's origin is dependent on geomorphological processes. In the case of damage without destruction of sites, at least for plants, the natural recovery of this habitat is rather fast when it is not isolated from similar habitats. The recolonization of sites by characteristic animals after strong disturbances may take longer.

Summary:
This habitat occurs through the temperate and mediterranean regions, in often highly localised situations, where rock and earth surfaces are kept wet by water trickles, spray splashing and a sunless orientation. The characteristic flora is dominated by shade- and moisture-tolerant vascular plants, luxuriant ferns and bryophytes, and green and blue-green algae. It is threatened by any interruption to the consistently wet conditions, by outdoor sports, especially rock climbing, climate change, mining and quarrying.

References:
Deil, U. 1996. Zur Kenntnis der Adiantetea-Gesellschaften des Mittelmeerraumes und angrenzender Gebiete – mit allgemeinen Überlegungen zur ökologischen Skalierung ihrer Standorte und zur Sättigung von Pflanzengesellschaften. Phytocoenologia 26(4): 481-536.
Mucina, L. 1993. Asplenietea trichomanis. In: Mucina, L., Grabherr, G., (eds.), Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs. Teil II. Natürliche waldfreie Vegetation. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena: pp. 241-275.
Oberdorfer, E., 1977. Süddeutsche Pflanzgesellschaften.Teil I. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated by using the territorial data sheets. The calculated trend in the last 50 years is stable (resulting in category Least Concern), but due to missing data of several countries the calculated trend is considered as unreliable. No data (%) available or unsufficient data for A2a, A2b and A3.

Criterion B Text:
AOO and EOO and numbver of locations are much higher than the thresholds for criteria under B.

Criterion C/D Text:
No reliable data (%) available for C/D2, C/D3, C1, C2, C3, D1, D2 and D3. The figures for C/D1 were calculated by using the territorial data sheets and lead to the Least Concern category, but due to missing data of several countries the calculated trend is considered as unreliable.

Synthesis:
Due to a lack of quantitative data and a high degree of uncertainty among the provided data, the Red List category could not be evaluated. Therefore, the overall assessment leads to category Data Deficient (DD).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No subtypes have been distinguished for further examination.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: A. ÄŒarni, N. Juvan.
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, C. Bita-Nicolae, J.Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, L. M. Delescaille, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, D. Gigante, C. Gussev, N. Juvan, T. Kontula, J. Loidi, D. MilanoviÄ‡, P. Perrin, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani, Z. Škvorc.
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso Del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
Within the climatic zone where Fagus sylvatica is able to maintain dominance over other broadleaved trees, this habitat includes those beech woodlands which occur on impoverished, free-draining, base-poor rankers, acid brown earths and podzols developed from silicate bedrocks and sandy or gravelly superficial deposits. They extend from the Atlantic zone in Great Britain, France and Northern Spain, through Central Europe into the Continental zone and, in northern Italy and the Balkans into the Alpine region. Typically, Fagus sylvatica is overwhelmingly dominant (often ssp. moesiaca in the mid and eastern Balkans), when growing well forming a tall, cathedral-like canopy in which associates are few: Quercus petraea and less commonly Q. robur throughout the range, with Q. pyrenaica in the south-west and Castanea sativa in the west and south. In the Atlantic zone, Ilex aquifolium is a common understorey tree. Pinus sylvestris can be present at low altitudes, especially on shallow soils on siliceous rocks. At higher altitudes, Acer pseudoplatanus can occur, A. heldreichii in the Balkans and, towards the altitudinal limits of this woodland type, Abies alba and Picea abies in transitions to G3.1b and G3.1c mountain fir woodlands. The field layer is typically species-poor and often sparse, comprising shade-tolerant grasses and herbs and a few bryophytes. Commonest among these are Deschampsia flexuosa, Agrostis capillaris, Carex pilulifera, Oxalis acetosella, Maianthemum bifolium, Luzula pilosa, Vaccinium myrtillus, Pteridium aquilinum, Polytrichum formosum, Dicranella heteromalla, Dicranum scoparium, Mnium hornum and Hypnum cupressiforme. Generally, across the lowlands, Melampyrum pratense is characteristic with, towards the north-western Atlantic, Ruscus aculeatus, Lonicera periclymenum, Teucrium scorodonia, Hypericum pulchrum, Blechnum spicant, towards the south-west in the Massif Central, Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mountains, Euphorbia angulata, E. hyberna, Saxifraga hirsuta, S. spathularis and Luzula sylvatica spp. henriquesii. L. nivea and L. pedemontana occur in Insubria and Piedmont and Festuca drymeja in Illyria and the Carpathians. In the European lowlands, mixed Fagus-Quercus robur forests with this field layer should also be included under these Fagus woodlands. At higher altitudes, Dryopteris dilatata, Festuca altissima, Prenanthes purpurea, Luzula luzuloides, L. sylvatica, Senecio ovatus and S. nemorensis occur with, in mountain stands, Polygonatum verticillatum, Calamagrostis villosa and Homogyne alpina. Apart from the altitudinal variation from lowlands to higher altitudes, there is a broad range of different ecological situations in climatic and soil moisture conditions, ranging from relatively dry conditions with Carex pilulifera, Hieracium glaucinum or complete moss layers of Leucrobryum glaucum s.l. to humid conditions with ferns like Dryopteris filix-mas and Athyrium filix-femina. In relatively wet conditions species such as Frangula alnus, Lysimachia vulgaris occur, sometimes Molinia caerulea agg. can be dominant or if temporarily wet conditions prevail also Carex brizoides. Especially in subatlantic and atlantic conditions dominant species in the herb layer can be Pteridium aquilinum.
Indicators of quality:
Through the lowlands, this habitat has been widely converted to dwarf-shrub heaths for stock rearing and, later, partially re-afforestation with pine and spruce. At higher altitudes, there has been widespread replacement by conifer plantations (Picea spp., Pseudotsuga menziesii etc). High quality stands should show:
• Natural composition of canopy with dominant beech trees
• Structural diversity/ complexity with (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers
• Typical flora and fauna composition of the region
• Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying or standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi
• Presence of natural disturbance such as treefall openings with natural regeneration
• Long historical continuity (ancient woodland) with high species diversity
• Survival of larger stands of forest without anthropogenic fragmentation and isolation (to support fauna which need large undisturbed forests) • Absence of non-native species in all layers (flora & fauna)
• No signs of eutrophication (e.g. with the spread of shade-tolerant nitrophiles) or pollution
• No signs of acidification
• No man-induced very high population levels of ungulates
Characteristic species:
Tree canopy: Fagus moesiaca, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus petraea, Q. robur, Pinus sylvestris.
Field layer: Deschampsia flexuosa, Agrostis capillaris, Calamagrostis epigejos, Carex pilulifera, Convallaria majalis, Oxalis acetosella, Ilex aquilifolium, Maianthemum bifolium, Luzula pilosa, L. luzuloides, Vaccinium myrtillus, Melampyrum pratense, Hieracium murorum agg., Pteridium aquilinum.
Moss layer: Polytrichum formosum, Leucobryum glaucum, and other mosses like Dicranella heteromalla, Dicranum scoparium, Mnium hornum, Atrichum undulatum, and Hypnum cupressiforme.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G1.6 Beech woodland
Includes forests dominated by beech Fagus sylvatica in western and central Europe, and F. orientalis and other Fagus species in southeastern Europe and the Pontic region. This Red List habitat includes all the more calcifuge forest types dominated by beech. Those on non-acidic soils are included in G1.6a. Many montane mixed beech-fir or beech-fir-spruce forests are included under G4.6.
EuroVegChecklist:
Luzulo-Fagion sylvaticae Lohmeyer et Tx. in Tx. 1954
Ilici-Fagion sylvaticae Br.-Bl. 1967
Vaccinio-Fagion orientalis Passarge 1981 [in Caucasus]
Annex 1:
9110 Luzulo-Fagetum beech forests
9120 Atlantic acidophilous beech forests with Ilex and sometimes also Taxus in the shrublayer (Quercion robori-petraeae or Ilici-Fagenion)
91W0 Moesian beech forests
Emerald:
G1.6 Fagus woodland
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
6.1 Lowland beech forest of southern Scandinavia and north central Europe
6.2 Atlantic and subatlantic lowland beech forest
6.3 Subatlantic to Atlanto-Mediterranean submountainous beech forest
6.4 Central European submountainous beech forest
6.5 Carpathian submountainous beech forest
6.6 Illyrian submountainous beech forest
6.7 Moesian submountainous beech forest
7.1 South-western European mountainous beech forest
7.2 Central European mountainous beech forest
7.3 Apennine-Corsican mountainous beech forest
7.4 Illyrian mountainous beech forest
7.5 Carpathian mountainous beech forest
7.6 Moesian mountainous beech forest
7.7 Crimean beech forest
7.8 Oriental beech and hornbeam-oriental beech forest
VME
F5.1 Species-poor oligotrophic - mesotrophic beech and mixed beech forests

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Fagus sylvatica dominated beech forest both on acid and on non acid soils have their worldwide centre of distribution in central Europe and some of the most outstanding examples have been chosen as part of the World Heritage site "Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians ID-Nr. 1133".

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, but lacks occurrences on Corsica. Data sources: Art17, EVA, Bohn.

Trends in Quantity:
Average recent trend over the past 50 years is -15 % (for EU28) and -12% for EU28+ (but with less reliability because of bigger data gaps). Differences within Europe are substantial with stable to slightly positive trends in central Europe, however distinct decrease in Romania and a slight decrease in several other countries. Future quantitative trends are assessed as stable to slightly positive, possibly with the exception of Romania and some Balkan countries (data missing). Data on historic trends are largely missing, calculating an EU28 value is not possible; where present they indicate a clear decrease in some countries. In situations where the forest was largely reduced very early (depleted) an increase happened, like in Denmark.

Trends in Quality:
The calculated extent of degradation from territorial data is 36% (EU28, 34% for EU28) with a severety of degradation 46% (EU28), resp. 45% (EU28+), in total moderate. The trends have been calculated from about 85% of the acid beech forest area. However a slight decline of quality (severity of 30%) is present over large areas (>70% extent) with a reduction in old trees (> 120 years) in the past 50 years (Vilén et al. 2012) ongoing losses in primary and ancient forests especially in SE-Europe (Knapp & Fichtner 2012, Griffiths et. al. 2012) and EU red-listed saproxylic beetles linked to beech forests (Nieto & Alexander 2010, Lachat et al. 2012). For acidic beech forest a slow decrease in quality with changes in typical species combination is present on 70-80% of the European area due to critical load exeedance for nitrogen (EEA 2010). With regard to the highest standard of the indicators of quality, completely untouched (pristine) or oldgrowth ancient forests with suffiecient dead and dying trees are only present on less than 1 % of the remaining European area. Current trends in quality are on average still decreasing, with a number of countries where it is stable or slightly increasing.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably more than 90 %; outside the EU 28 are beech forests mainly in Switzerland and in Balkan countries, where part of the subpannonian-illyrian and moesian subtypes are not covered (see map 11, unit F5.1 of Bohn et al. 2003).

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat occurs in very large stands.

Pressures and Threats:
Both in EU28 and EU28+ the most significant threats are forestry use (especially removal of dead and dying trees, planting of non-native or conifer trees, felling or logging, partially also removal of undergrowth), loss of area, fragmentation and impacts due to urbanization and infrastructure. Climate change pressures (both change of abiotic conditions and biotic effects) are still low, but tend to be more important or regionally important in future (drought risks, storm events etc.). Air pollution and eutrophication are regionally important. Especially in the Mediterranean countries grazing can be a major pressure and threat, in other regions high game densities can be an additional threat. In some countries deforestation without replanting, and/or invasive species are an important issue.

Conservation and Management:
The majority of beech forests in the EU are under regular forestry management, which reduces the development phases to about a third of the natural tree life with deficits in dead wood and all microhabitats associated with old trees. Apart from guaranteeing a regrowth (natural or by planting) of the beech forest after harvesting (no losses in area), a certain minimum of wilderness core zones combined with some allowance for dead or dying trees within used forests is a good way of combining nature conservation needs with forestry use. Forest fragmentation by urbanization and infrastructure needs adapted spatial planning. In regions with already a low forest cover, additional forest planting may be needed to reduce fragmentation in future. As full regeneration is very difficult; ancient woodland and the small remnants of pristine woodland are of highest conservation interest, but establishing protected areas on small areas is not sufficient alone. Regionally management of invasive species might be necessary, or in the case of high pressure of grazing, areas with exclusion of grazing should be established, or game populations should be reduced and managed.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
9110: ALP U1, ATL U1, BOR U2, CON U1, MED FV, PAN U1
9120: ALP U1, ATL U1, CON FV, MED U2
91W0: ALP FV, COn FV

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Both naturally and through interventation full recovery of the habitat usually needs time-spans over 200 years. While the tree species can be planted, the characteristic species of the herb layer include many myrmecochore species (seeds dispersed very slowly over small distances by ants). The full set of characteristic species includes many saproxylic invertebrates and fungi which need a historic habitat continuity. All of these require old and dead trees in a late development stage of forests, some of them are even after 2-3 tree generations unable to recolonise new forest stands. Furthermore, in situations where forests are isolated (especially in European densely populated lowlands) or where characteristic species are (on the verge of) extinction or extinct a full restoration is impossible even with active intervention. Pristine remnants and any ancient woodland therefore needs highest conservation priorities and connectivity needs to be developed especially in fragmented sites.

Summary:
This habitat includes those Fagus sylvatica woodlands occurring on impoverished, free-draining, base-poor soils developed from silicate bedrocks and sandy or gravelly superficial deposits through the Atlantic and Continental zones and, in northern Italy and the Balkans, into the Alpine region. Typically Fagus is overwhelmingly dominant, an understorey is often absent or sparse and the field layer species-poor, comprising scattered shade-tolerant grasses and herbs and a few bryophytes. Significant pressures are from forestry, urbanization and infrastructure development, regionally also eutrophication, pollution, invasive species and, in Mediterranean countries, grazing. Conservation depends on sensible sylviculture.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Raus, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. (2004): Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.
Council of Europe (2010), Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats. Strasbourg:  Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. (2004), EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised. Report to the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.
European Commission DG Environment (2007), Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency (2006), European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No 9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
European Environment Agency (2010). Critical load exceedance for nitrogen. - Indicator Assessment | Data and maps. 14 pp., Copenhagen. http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/critical-loadexceedance-for-nitrogen/critical-load-exceedance-for-nitrogen.
Griffiths, P.; Kuemmerle, T.; Kennedy, R. E.; Abrudan, I. V.; Knorn, J. & Hostert, P. 2012. Using annual time-series of Landsat images to assess the effects of forest restitution in post-socialist Romania. Remote Sensing of Environment 118 (2012) 199–214.
Knapp, H.D. & Fichtner, A. (Eds.) 2012.  Beech Forests – Joint Nautral Heritage of Europe (2). BfN-Skripten 327: 1-222, Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn.
Lachata,T.; Wermelingera, B.; Gossnerb, B. M.; Bussler, H.; Isacssond, G. & Müller, J. 2012. Saproxylic beetles as indicator species for dead-wood amount and temperature in European beech forests. Ecological Indicators 23: 323–331.
Larsson, T.-B. (coord., 2001): Biodiversity Evaluation Tools for European Forests. Ecological Bulletin 50: 237 pp.
Lenkungsgruppe der Länder Brandenburg, Hessen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern und Thüringen mit dem Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit und dem Bundesamt für Naturschutz (2009): Anmeldung „Alte Buchenwälder Deutschlands“ als Erweiterung des Weltnaturerbes Buchenurwälder der Karpaten (Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians ID-Nr. 1133). – Nationale Naturlandschaften, 186 S. (Download: https://www.bfn.de/0304_buchenwaelder-unesco-pdm.html). See also http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1133)
Nieto, A. & Alexander, K.N.A. 2010. European Red List of Saproxylic Beetles. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 46 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/conservation/species/downloads/European_saproxylic_beetles.pdf)
Suck, R.; Bushart, M. unter Mitarbeit von Hofmann, G.; Schröder, L.; Bohn, U. (2010):  Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands : Maßstab 1 : 500.000 ; Münster : BfN-Schriftenvertrieb im Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2010. - Kartenteil: 7 Karten; Legende: 24 S.
Suck, R.; Bushart, M., Hofmann, G.; Schröder, L. (2013): Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands: 2. Band: Kartierungseinheiten; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F + E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400. - BfN-Skripten 349: 1-305.
Suck, R.; Bushart, M., Hofmann, G.; Schröder, L.  unter Mitarbeit von Bohn, U.; Jenssen, M.; Bushart, M. (2014): Karte der potentiellen natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands : 3. Band: Erläuterungen, Auswertungen, Anwendungsmöglichkeiten, Vegetationstabellen ; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F+E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400.– BfN-Skripten 377: 1-317.
Suck, R.; Bushart, M., Hofmann, G.; Schröder, L. (2014): Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands : 1. Band: Grundeinheiten ; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F+E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400. – BfN-Skripten 348: 1-449.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell,  J.S. (2013), Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Vilén, T.; Gunia, K.; Verkerk, P.J.; Seidl, R.; Schelhaas, M.-J.; Lindner, M. & Bellassen, V. 2012.. Reconstructed forest age structure in Europe 1950–2010. Forest Ecology and Management, 2012: 286: 203 DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2012.08.048 (see also note on science daily: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121213084931.htm)

Criterion A Text:
During the past 40-60 years there was an average decrease of -15% (EU28) rep. -12% (EU28+) with a large variation within Europe. Information on historical losses is very limited and therefore not useful for assessments. Major historical losses occurred to a large part already before 1750 and therefore an application of citerium A3 would not  sufficiently reflect the situation.

Criterion B Text:
Both EOO and AOO are very large and do not meet the criteria B1 or B2. The habitat exists at numerous locations.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity are based on weighted averages calculated from over 80% of the area, where all necessary data were present in territorial data sheets. The calculated extent affected seems to take into account mainly moderate severity and has been applied differently by territorial experts. A slight reduction in quality is present over >70% of the area, with a reduction in old trees (> 120 years) in the past 50 years (Vilén et al. 2012) ongoing losses in primary and ancient forests especially in SE-Europe (Knapp & Fichtner 2012, Griffiths et. al. 2012) and EU red-listed saproxylic beetles linked to beech forests (Nieto & Alexander 2010, Lachat et al. 2012). Additionally, for acidic beech forest a slow decrease in quality with changes in typical species combinations is present on 70-80% of the European area due to critical load exeedance for nitrogen (EEA 2010). Information on long historical or future trends is incomplete and could not be used for criteria CD2, CD3. Reduction in quality usually affected both abiotic and biotic changes and therefore criteria C and D were not split.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type. Different climate change scenarios exist, but results are varying and usually only predict shifts in the distribution in some parts of the whole range. Predictions on changes of the whole habitat type with its species composition are not existing.

Synthesis:
The habitat suffered a moderate qualitative decrease over more than one third of its area and a slight decrease over large area (>70%) with continuing pressures and threats being present. This leads to the category Near Threatened under criterion C/D1. Because of the large EOO and AOO, and a slight quantitative decrease all other criteria are Least Concern as well. Assessment of historic trends were not possible due to data deficiencies.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
While at least some good examples of acid mountain beech forests still persist, the situation in acid lowland beech forest on sandy plains and sanddunes is much more fragmented. Several of its subtypes (e.g. Annex I types) have been affected by a moder

Contributors:
Habitat definition: John Rodwell, with additions by A. Ssymank & M. Chytry
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, E. Bendiksen, R.-J. Bijlsma, C. Bita-Nicolae,  J. Bölöni, T.E. Brandrud, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, M. Chytrý,  L. De Keersmaeker, R. Delarze, M. Dimitrov, P. Dimopoulos, P. Finck, J. Janssen, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, K.J.  Kirby, J. Loidi, V. Matevski,  F. Millaku, F. O'Neill, B. Nygaard, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, B. Renaux, U. Riecken, J. Rodwell, Å½. Škvorc, D. SteševiÄ‡, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, A. Thomaes, M. ValachoviÄ, K. Vanderkerkhove,  N. Velkovski , D. Viciani, L. Wibail, W. Willner
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
E1.5e Madeiran oromediterranean siliceous dry grassland

Habitat Description:
This habitat consists of perennial cespitose grasslands of oromediterranean, humid to ultrahyperhumid bioclimates, in the summit of mountains of Madeira Island, to which this vegetation is strictly endemic. Such communities occur at altitudes over 1,500 m Asl, either in earthy rock crevices (chasmophytic) or over horizontal platforms along hillsides with shallow andosols, on silicate volcanic substrata (either hardrock or pyroclast). The physiognomy of these communities varies from dense mat-like, more or less continuous in platforms, to discontinuous on rock outcrops following crevices; it´s height is normally between 0.2 and 0.4 m. Dominant species are mostly madeiran endemic grasses: Parafestuca albida (= Koeleria albida), Deschampsia maderensis, Festuca jubata, Anthoxanthum maderense, Agrostis obtusissima and Holcus pintodasilvae; notheworthy madeiran endemics having their optima in this habitat are: Armeria maderensis, Anthyllis lemmaniana, Crepis andryaloides, Orchis scopulorum, Micromeria varia subsp. thymoides var. cacuminicolae, Rumex bucephalophorus subsp. fruticescens.
This vegetation occupies azonal permanent habitats in a mosaic with tree-heath forests of Madeira (Polysticho falcinelli-Ericion canariensis- G2.7 =Polysticho-Ericion arboreae) and mat-forming mountain low heath communities of Erica maderensis (Argyranthemo montani-Ericetum maderensis, Bystropogono punctati-Telinion maderensis –G2.7). Side contacts with succulent semi-deciduous rosette Crassulaceae comophyte (i.e. on the surface of rock) communities (Sinapidendro angustifolii-Aeonion glandulosi – F8.2) enrich the madeiran grasslands with many other endemics (see F8.2- Madeiran xerophytic scrub). Other common contacts are with Thymus micans communities (E1.Ad).
As the summit of Madeira´s mountains was, until recently, grazed mostly by domestic goats, the coenotic extreme of the community in platforms is thought to be quite rare, being the rocky coenotical extreme the dominant case. Platforms if permanently grazed normally had nitrogen-prone grasslands dominated by Agrostis castellana / Holcus sp. pl. With withdrawal of goat grazing the platforms with shallow andosols were gradually colonized, in recent years, by this habitat's community where the habitat optimum seems to be. Thus, due to grazing withdrawal the actual area of the community is bigger than it was ten years ago. Although in shallower platforms and rock outcrops the community seems to be of a permanent type (a permasigmetum in the sense of S. Rivas-Martínez) and kept by regular gravitational disturbance, in deeper more stable soils ecological succession may lead to substitution of grasslands by woody types.
Indicators of quality:
The habitat contains a set of endemics with high constancy and fidelity that are observed in most well-preserved situations. Nevertheless, poorer basal communities dominated by few of the grasses can be found. These have lower floristical quality, but, in turn can develop into fully coenotically saturated versions. In general, the greater the diversity of the above cited flora is found and less of generalist Mediterranean and Madeiran-Canarian grasses or semi-nitrogen-prone grasses (e.g. Bromus sp. pl.) are found, the better the habitat quality is (e.g. Dactylis smithii subsp. hylodes, Agrostis castellana).
Characteristic species:
Flora, Vascular plants:
Endemics trictly characteristic of habitat: Parafestuca albida (dom.)*, Deschampsia maderensis (dom.), Festuca jubata, (dom.) Anthoxanthum maderense, Agrostis obtusissima, Holcus pintodasilvae, Armeria maderensis, Anthyllis lemmaniana, Crepis andryaloides, Orchis scopulorum, Micromeria varia subsp. thymoides var. cacuminicolae, Rumex bucephalophorus subsp. fruticescens. (Taxonomical remarks: Parafestuca is a monotypic genus endemic of Madeira according to the criteria of E.B. Alexeev (1985). Recent revision places it in Koeleria. We follow the former criteria; Festuca jubata was formerly thought to be shared with Azores, but is now taken to be a strict madeiran endemic; in Azores F. jubata auct. is F. francoi)
Common transgressive endemics from other habitats: Odontites holliana, Andryala grandulosa subsp. varia, Saxifraga maderensis var. pickeringii, Argyranthemum pinnatifidum subsp. montanum, Teucrium francoi, Plantago arborescens subsp. maderensis, Viola paradoxa, Vicia capreolata, Sinapidendron frutescens.
Fauna
Birds: Pterodroma madeira (Zino’s Petrel, is one of the most threatened bird species in the world (ca. 30 couples) and nests on this habitat alone).

Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.5 Mediterranean-montane grassland
EuroVegChecklist:
Deschampsio maderensis-Parafestucion albidae Capelo et al. 2000
Annex 1:
-
Emerald:
-
MAES:
Terrestrial - grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Madeiran mountain grasslands are strictly endemic to Madeira Island, within a very small area and have several endemics, with one at genus level: Parafestuca and species.

Map Description:
The map is complete as the habitat is restricted to the highest parts of Madeira. Data sources: LIT.

Trends in Quantity:
Madeiran mountain grasslands are restricted to rocky habitats and earthy rock platforms of the island of Madeira above 1,500 m Asl. Historically, they might have been more abundant in a large plateau at 1,500 m Asl (Paul da Serra), however between the XVI or XVII centuries, and the 90's of the XX century the area was intensively grazed and this habitat type was altered almost to the point of collapse (Andrada, 1990; Sousa, 2003). Therefore, the historical reduction might have been greater than 50%, probably greater (80%). During most of the last 50 years, the habitat was restricted to the rocky highest peaks (Pico Areeiro and Pico Ruivo). As the Madeira Natural Park decided to ban goat grazing from mountains (in the 90s), the area has expanded into earthy platforms around the peaks. The increase in extent is estimated to be 225% of total area (during the past 50 years).

Trends in Quality:
In the last 50 years, the trend in quality is estimated to have been stable, although no reliable quantitative estimates are available. No plant extinctions were reported. Nevertheless, a part of the habitat potential area was under a grazing regime (by goats), thus some reduction in quality may have occurred. In terms of composition, the grazed grasslands might have included some of the characteristic species, but mostly common species might have been promoted (e.g. Holcus lanatus, Agrostis castellana). Since the 90s of the XX century, a great proportion of former pasture land, as it was abandoned, recovered gradually, but as secondary versions of the pristine grassland (previously only on rock). Nevertheless new recovered areas from secondary versions are gaining more and more characteristic species. It is expected that, in the future, recovered areas will be equivalent in quality to pristine ones. Thus, it is assumed that the overall trend in quality is stable.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Of the current distribution of this habitat type, 100%  is within the EU 28 since this species is endemic to Portugal.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
During most of the last 50 years, the habitat maintained its small area at first due to the persistence of grazing within the largest potential area of the habitat. However, in the last 15 to 20 years, the area has increased much due to banning of goat

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is naturally restricted to the highest peaks in Madeira Island, which amount to a very small EOO (approximately 200 Km2).

Pressures and Threats:
Madeiran mountain meadows are, in general, of permanent character and do not depend on grazing to persist. Therefore, successional processes leading to shrub formations are not expected in most of the habitat area. Nevertheless, the invasive alien shrub called the common broom (Cytisus scoparius) (from mainland) has some capacity to establish in the habitat and it is expanding in the mountain areas. The dispersion of the common broom into this habitat is positively promoted by wildfires because of the intense dormancy-breaking effect in the soil seed bank after the fires. Wildfires are not a frequent occurrence in the highest peaks but they might occur from time to time during exceptionally dry summers (the last one was in 2011). As strict protective measures have been taken by Park authorities and the habitat is, for the most part inaccessible to humans, only those habitat stretches near mountain trails could be at some risk. Nevertheless, the trails' limits, are, in general, not trespassed by tourists and the effect of trampling is unimportant. Expansion of military and touristic facilities, which happened recently, is to be kept in control. Plantation of native trees way outside their natural altitude range due to volunteer NGO activities was also reported and might compromise some areas. Pillage by botanists (non-authorized) could be also problematic. Climate change might, in the future, lead to mountain meadows being found outside their bioclimatic optimum.

Conservation and Management:
The main conservation measures needed are the establishment of strictly protected areas, the strict control of touristic visits (minimizing trampling), the prevention of grazing and the control of the expansion of invasive Cytisus scoparius and planting of other species, even if they are Madeiran native trees and shrubs.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Provided that are well-conserved habitats nearby that may act as sources of propagula (seeds), after burning, a landslide or banning grazing, it is expected that habitat recovers with relative ease. Human-induced disturbances are expected to be also kept at minimum possible level (wildfire, trampling).

Summary:
This highly distinctive habitat of tussocky grassland, rich in endemics, is restricted to high mountains in Madeira, occurring in crevices and on ledges in silicate volcanics where the soils are kept permanently moist by the very humid climate. Typically occurring in mosaics with heaths and woodlands, the decline of domestic goat grazing has favoured its extension into what were more accessible situations, but invasion by shrubs and trees can then be a threat, particularly problematic when alien species appear. Though more or less stable, the highly restricted distribution make the habitat vulnerable.

References:
Andrada, E.C. 1990. Repovoamento florestal do Arquipélago da Madeira(1952-1975). Direção-Geral das Florestas. Secretaria de Estado da Agricultura. Ministério da Agricultura, Pescas e Alimentação. Lisboa, 205 pp.
Sousa, M.A.M.M. 2003. A pastorícia nas serras da Região Autónoma da Madeira. In 50 anos a servir a floresta. Governo Regional da Mdeira. Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e Recursos Naturais. Direção Regional de Florestas. Funchal.
Capelo, J., Costa, J.C., Lousã, M., Fontinha, S., Jardim, R., Sequeira, M. and Rivas-Martínez, S. 2000. Vegetação da Madeira (Portugal): aproximação à tipologia fitossociológica. Silva Lusitana, 7(2): 257 – 279.
Capelo, J., Sequeira, M. Jardim, R., Mesquita, S. and Costa, J.C. 2005. The vegetation of Madeira Island (Portugal). A brief overview and excursion guide. Quercetea, 7: 105 -122.
Costa, J.C., Neto, C., Aguiar, C., Capelo, J., Espírito-Santo, M.D., Honrado, J., Pinto-Gomes, C., Monteiro-Henriques, T., Sequeira, M. and Lousã, M. 2012. Vascular Plant Communities in Portugal (continental, Azores & Madeira) Global Geobotany 2: 1-180.
Costa, J.C., Capelo, J., S., Jardim, R., Sequeira, Espírito-Santo, M.D., Lousã, M. Fontinha, S., Aguiar, C. and Rivas-Martínez, S. in Capelo, J. (ed.) 2004. Catálogo sintaxonómico e florístico das comunidades vegetais da Madeira e Porto Santo. Quercetea 6: 61-186.
Taxonomical reference: 90(5): 107 (1985) <a href="http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPublicationSearch.do?back_page=/ipni/editAdvPlantNameSearch.do;jsessionid=C22F2EA0B47537447572269894FF69EA?find_infragenus=&find_isAPNIRecord=true&find_geoUnit=&find_includePublicationAuthors=true&find_addedSince=&find_family=&find_genus=Parafestuca&find_sortByFamily=true&find_isGCIRecord=true&find_infrafamily=&find_rankToReturn=all&find_publicationTitle=&find_authorAbbrev=&find_infraspecies=&find_includeBasionymAuthors=true&find_modifiedSince=&find_isIKRecord=true&find_species=&output_format=normal&id=856-2">Byull. Moskovsk. Obshch. Isp. Prir., Otd. Biol. 90(5): 107

Criterion A Text:
An historic reduction of more than 50% is estimated to have taken place due to extensive and persistent goat and sheep grazing until the mid 90´s of the XX century (which has been banned since). This habitat type is therefore assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion A3. In the last 50 years, there has been an increase in the area of this habitat and there is no information on future trends.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a very restricted geographic range, with an EOO of 200 Km2 and an AOO of 2. Wildfires and encroachment by an invasive shrub (Cytisus scoparius) are likely to cause a continuing decline in the quantity and quality of this habitat in the next 20 years. Taking into account the likely extent of the effects of these threats and the distribution of this habitat, it is assumed that the habitat occurs at less than five locations. This habitat is therefore assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion B3 and as Critically Endangered under Criterion B1 and B2.

Criterion C/D Text:
There are no quantitative estimates for the reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality. This habitat types is therefore assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type, which is therefore assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
This habitat is only found in the highest peaks of Madeira Island, and has an extremely restricted geographic range (extent of occurrence (EOO) is 200 Km2, area of occupancy (AOO) is only 2 grid cells). It is assessed as Critically Endangered since wildfires and an invasive shrub species (Cytisus scoparius) are likely to lead to a continuing decline in the quantity and quality of this habitat in the next 20 years.

Contributors:
Habitat description: J. Capelo
Territorial data: J. Capelo, D. Espírito-Santo, M. Sequeira & R. Jardim
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
F2.1 Subarctic and alpine dwarf Salix scrub

Habitat Description:
Subarctic and alpine snowbed and snow-patch communities dominated by dwarf willows. The habitat type occurs north of or above the climatic tree limit, but outside the permafrost zone. Salix species characteristic to this habitat type are usually under 10 cm in height, and rarely exceed 1,5 m. Dwarf scrub is well developed in boreal and arctic mountains and subarctic lowlands.
The habitat type occurs in boreal and arcto-alpine mountains of Fennoscandia, in the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians and Caucasus. Occurrences of the habitat type exist locally also in southern mountains in Europe. In mountains of the nemoral and warm-temperate zones, stands of dwarf willow scrub are of much smaller extent and are characteristic of late-lying snow patches.
The habitat type is found on both siliceous and calcareous bedrock, being more species-rich in the latter. There is no single characteristic species describing all the occurrences, but the vegetation varies in different geographic areas and according to the substrate. Communities vary from acidophile–acidocline vegetation with typical species like Salix herbacea, Carex firma, Salix retusa, Aster alpinus and Carex sempervirens (alliances Salicion herbaceae, Cassiopo-Salicion herbaceae, Salici herbaceae-Caricion lachenalii)  to calciphile–calcicline vegetation (alliances Arabidion caeruleae). Typical species of the latter are e.g. Salix polaris, Salix reticulata, Salix retusa, (incl. Salix kitaibeliana), Poa alpina, Selaginella selaginoides and Bistorta vivipara.
The communities are adapted to short growing season and late-lying snow, which lasts up to 8–10 months. The humus layer is thin and the soil is gravel or sand. After melting, the habitat can be rather dry in summer. Dwarf willows dominate the vegetation, but mosses and lichens are also abundant.
Snowbed communities dominated by grasses, forbs or mosses do not belong to this habitat type, but are included in type E4.1.
Indicators of good quality:
The following characteristics are indicators of good quality:
Dominance of dwarf willows
Late-lying snow cover

Characteristic species:
Flora, Dwarf shrubs: Salix herbacea, Salix polaris, Salix reticulata, Salix retusa, Salix kitaibeliana
Herbs and grasses: Alchemilla pentaphyllea, Antennaria alpina, Arabis caerulea, Aster alpinus, Bistorta vivipara, Carex bigelowii, C. firma, C. foetida, C. lachenalii, C. sempervirens, Cassiope hypnoides, Diphasiatrum alpinum, Dryas octopetala, Epilobium anagallidifolium, Erigeron uniflorus, Festuca ovina, Gnaphalium hoppeanum, G. supinum, Luzula alpinopilosa, Oxyria digyna, Pinguicula alpina, Poa alpina, Ranunculus glacialis, R. nivalis, R. pygmaeus, Saxifraga cernua, Selaginella selaginoides, Sibbaldia procumbens, Silene acaulis, Thalictrum alpinum, Tofieldia pusilla, Veronica alpina, Viola biflora
In Iceland additionally: Phleum alpinum, Pyrola minor, Taraxacum spp.
Mosses and liverworts: Anthelia juratzkana, Athalamia hyaline, Conostomum spp., Blepharostoma trichophyllum, Dicranum spp., Distichium capillaceum, Hylocomium splendens, Kiaeria starkei, Kiaeria spp., Marsupella spp., Pleurocladula albescens, Pohlia drummondii, Polytrichastrum alpinum, Polytrichum spp., Sanionia uncinata, 
Lichens: Cetrariella delisei, Cetraria islandica, Cladonia coccifera, Lecidea caesioatra, Ochrolechia spp., Pertusaria spp., Psora decipiens, Solorina crocea, Stereocaulon alpinum, Stereocaulon spp.
Fauna
Mammals: Lemmus lemmus

Classification:
Annex 1:
6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands (small part)
6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands (small part)
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Salicion herbaceae Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et Jenny 1926
Salici herbaceae-Caricion lachenalii Béguin et Theurillat 1982
Arabidion caeruleae Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et Jenny 1926
Cassiopo-Salicion herbaceae Nordhagen 1943
Emerald:
-
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.1 Subarctic shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is very characteristic for alpine areas, where it occurs in the largest area in northern Europe. Outside the EU28 it is also typical for the Arctic region.

Comment EU28+:
Main area of this habitat is in Norway (incl. Svalbard).

Trends in Quantity:
Data on this habitat is very poor, with large gaps in data. Depending on the interpretation of existing data the trend could be decreasing, but less than 1%, or stable. Conclusion is therefore stable.

Trends in Quality:
The data is weak as there are big gaps in th data, but existing figures gives a severity less than 25% within an affected extent of less than 25%.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably less than 25% as Switzerland, Iceland and Norway contain a huge portion of the habitat. The only EU28 member state with a big area is Sweden.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The range extent (EEO) is mich larger than 50,000 km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has a large natural range, but within the range the habitat is in most cases restricted to small sites where the snow lasts relatively long.

Pressures and Threats:
The dominating threat for the habitat is climate change that will change the distribution, quantity and quality of the habitat. At local level several other threats can be acting, like building for skiing complex and other tourist accomodations. Overgrazing could be a local problem, mainly because of to heavy trampling by cattle.

Conservation and Management:
No possible managament is known to address negative effects of climate change, the dominating threat, except international reduction of CO2 output. To prevent different local threats from human activities, a representative number of protected areas is needed, large enough to take into account distribution changes due to climate change.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
6150: ALP FV, ATL U2, BOR FV
6170: ALP U1, ATL U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat can probably recover relatively fast if it is affected. It is depending on the (micro)climate, including snowcover time and depth. As this habitat is extremely climate dependent no possible management to make the habitat recover faster is known.

Summary:
Subarctic and alpine dwarf willow scrub is a habitat occurring outside the permafrost zone, mainly in the boreal and arctic-alpine mountains with more local occurrences further south and very sparsely in the high mountains of the nemoral zone. Long and deep snow cover protects against winter cold but melts to give way to a short growing period. Dwarf willows dominate and mosses and lichens are abundant but the associated flora depends on  the acidity of the typically rudimentary soils. Tourist infrastructure and activities threaten in some localities and there is already evidence of decrease with climate warming to the north and smaller areas further south might be expected to be more vulnerable.

References:
Delarze, R. & Y. Gonseth (2008). Guide des milieux naturels de Suisse. 2e édition. Rossolis, Bussigny.
Johanson, B., Tømmervik, H., Karlsen, S. R. and Elvebakk, R. 2010. Vegetation mapping of Svalbard, Arctic Norway, utilizing Landsat TM/ETM+ data. NORUT – NINA – UiTø.
Kapfer, J., R. Virtanen & J-A. Grytnes 2012. Changes in arctic vegetation on Jan Mayen Island over 19 and 80 years. Journal of Vegetation Science 23: 771–781.
Magnússon, S. H., Magnússon, B., Ólafsson, E., Guðjónsson, G., Guðmundsson, G. A., Kristinsson, H., Egilsson, K., Skarphéðinsson, K H., Heiðmarsson, S. & Ottósson. J. G. 2009. Vistgerðir á miðhálendi Íslands Flokkun, lýsing og verndargildi. NÍ-09008.

Criterion A Text:
The calculation of average European trends gives figures very close to zero. But the trend varies a lot between the countries, from stable (Romania, Switzerland) to 50-70% decrease in Germany. Several countries report possible future reductions due to climate change, but no quantitative data is available for criterion A2a. However, for the EU28 a Near Threatened status for A2a is concluded, as the central European mountains are likely to be much more affected than the Scandinavian ones (compare the assessment of grassland snow beds E4.1). The likely lower and slower affects in the boreal and arctic regions, lead to the conclusion Least Concern for EU28+.

Criterion B Text:
EEO, AAO and number of locations are much larger than the thresholds for criteria under B. Even if there is a serious threat (climate change) the assessment is Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
Some degradation over the last 50 years took place in part of the area, mostly inside the EU28, but the values are relatively low, leading to the conclusion Least Concern. for the future however large areas will be affected negatively due to climate change, especially in the EU28. No quantitative data is available, but a Near Threatened status is concluded for the EU28 for criterion C/D2 and C/D1.

Synthesis:
The habitat seems to be stable in area and quality over the last 50 years, but with large natural fluctuations due to yearly snow cover and other (micro)climatic factors. It has a rather fast turn over, and can disappear or get established in a few decades. The quality of the habtat is decreasing a bit, but not so much to meet any red list criterion. Most of the decline in Europe is inside the EU28, outside Scandinavia and the arctic region. However, as climate change is considered a serious threat, it is expected that for the future a decline in area and quality may occur, resulting at least in a Near Threatened situation in the EU28. For the EU28+ the overall status is assessed as Least Concern (LC).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
This habitat has a huge distribution from the Balkans to Svalbard, and few species are in common through the whole range. A main subdivision in a Northern Scandinavian/Svalbard subtype and a Central/South European subtype seems needed, as the sout

Contributors:
Habitat definition: K. Mäkelä
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, P. Finck, C. Giancola, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, V. Matevski, T. Kontula, A. Mikolajczak, P. Perrin, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Rusakova, J. Šibík, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, N. Velkovski.
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi.


Habitat Type Name:
H2.5 Temperate, lowland to montane siliceous scree

Habitat Description:
Siliceous (acidic) screes and moraines of warm exposures on the lower slopes of mountain ranges of the nemoral zone, including the Alps, Pyrenees and Hercynian ranges, also on hills and lowlands and, locally, of middle European upland or lowland sites. They consist of various volcanic, crystalline, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks with acidic to neutral reaction. Often the screes are mixed with fine soil. The vegetation can completely lack, but in other sites is represented by forb- or fern-dominated, sometimes by moss- or lichen-dominated, species-poor communities. Siliceous screes in general have a lower species richness than calcareous screes. But the diversity of fern species is higher than in calcareous screes. Examples of characteristic ferns are Cryptogramma crispa, Dryopteris oreades and Dryopteris expansa. The screes on warm slopes of the subalpine level of the Alps and the Pyrenees, usually composed largely of big stones or boulders, are occupied by communities of Senecio leucophyllus, Taraxacum pyrenaicum, Galeopsis pyrenaica, Xatardia scabra, Armeria alpina. In central Europe and the Carpathian’s periphery screes are often dominated by Achnatherum calamagrostis, Melica ciliata and Galeopsis ladanum. Similar communities can also occur on secondary substrates, like in quarries, but they must not be treated as the habitat. Screes have a very special cold microclimate and are often inhabited by invertebrate glacial relict species.
Indicators of quality:
•    occurrence of natural erosion processes,
•    presence of rare, relict or endemic species,
•    absence of human activities, incl. grazing,
•    absence of alien species (e.g. Robinia pseudacacia may support the processes of stabilisation of screes and extinction of the typical flora).
Characteristic species:
Flora, Vascular plants: Achnatherum calamagrostis, Anarrhinum bellidifolium, Asplenium adiantum-nigrum subsp. onopteris, Biscutella flexuosa, Cryptogramma crispa, Conopodium bunioides, Digitalis purpurea, D. tjiapsi, Dryopteris affinis, D. expansa, D. oreades, D. tyrrhena, Epilobium collinum, Erysimum humile, Holcus setosus, Hylotelephium telephinum, Galeopsis ladanum, G. pyrenaica, Galeopsis segetum, G. tetrahit, Geranium robertianum, L. repens, L. saxatilis, Melica ciliata, Poa nemoralis, Reseda gredensis, Rumex suffruticosus, Santolina oblongifolia, Scrophularia schousboei, S. scorodonia, S. oxyrhyncha, Senecio leucophyllus, S. pyrenaicus, S. viscosus, Taraxacum pyrenaicum, Trisetum hispidum, Xatardia scabra 
Mosses: Ceratodon purpureus, Rhacomitrium spp. 
Lichens: Cladonia arbuscula, C. cariosa, C. conoicrocea, C. fimbriata, Stereocaulon incrustatum, S. paschale, Umbilicaria spp.

Classification:
EUNIS:
H2.5 Acid siliceous screes of warm exposures
EuroVegChecklist:
Galeopsion segetum Oberd. 1957 
Galeopsion pyneraicae Rivas-Mart. 1977
Gymnogrammo-Scrophularion Rivas Goday 1964
Sesamoidion suffruticosae Ortiz et Pulgar 2000 
Dryopteridion oreadis Rivas-Mart. 1977 corr. Rivas-Mart. et al. 1984 
Annex 1: 
8150 Medio-European upland siliceous screes
Emerald: 
H2.5 Acid siliceous screes of warm exposures
MAES:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
6. Rocky Areas [e.g. inland cliffs, mountain peaks]

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat type is well represented across Europe.

Map Description:
The map may have data gaps through the whole range and in the Balkan particularly. Data sources: Art17, EVA.

Comment EU28:
No significant missing data, data from the UK probably overestimated

Comment EU28+:
No significant missing data, data from the UK probably overestimated

Trends in Quantity:
The current trend is stable at the European scale, except for some countries showing a slightly decreasing trend (Bulgaria). The average decrease over the last 50 years in Europe has been slight (-5% EU28, -6 % EU28+); it has been caused by human activities, such as quarrying and infrastructure constructions (roads, tracks, urbanisation). This habitat type is far less common and faces more widespread pressures and threats than its high-mountain counterpart (H2.3 type). Ignoring the UK (overestimated, very large current area reported and stable recent trend), the average decrease would be around -10%. Decrease in quantity may also be caused to a small extent by natural processes, like scree stabilization and subsequent natural succession (encroachment). The historical trend is similar, except in Germany, where a -80% historical trend is reported due to natural succession. When reported, the future trend is stable or at worst slightly decreasing.

Trends in Quality:
A decrease in quality during the last 50 years has occurred rather locally (extent 26%) and has been limited on average (severity 17%). This reduced quality is mainly due to a loss of functionality of screes (reduced mobility), which is caused by natural succession and by nearby constructions. Natural succession is faster at lower elevation than up the mountains (cf. H2.3 type). Roads often go across screes and reduce their mobility by cutting the slow flow of scree materials (stones). Erosion and alteration of cliffs above screes release materials regularly; any securing of such cliffs prevents screes from functioning normally. Sheep grazing, which is reported as a threat in Ireland (and the UK), also affects the quality. Historical and future trends cannot be described owing to a lack of data.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
95 %. The native biota (at least vascular plants, alliances) of this habitat type occur largely within the EU28. A small part is found in Ukraine as well as in non-EU Balkan countries.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The range (EOO) is well above the 50,000 Km² threshold and no important decline has occurred during the last 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat type occurs only in small spots in the lowlands and low mountains, when habitat conditions are appropriate. It does have an intrinsically restricted area.

Pressures and Threats:
Human-induced and natural-processes-dependent threats are of equal relevance for this habitat. Human-induced threats comprise quarrying of natural sites with cliffs and screes, and the constructions of transportation infrastructure. Of less concern, or only locally relevant, are sheep grazing in Ireland and the UK and outdoor activities (creation of trails across screes). Natural succession is responsible for the encroachment of stabilized screes; it is reported as the main threat in Germany.

Conservation and Management:
Usually there is no management need for this habitat to remain but leaving it undisturbed and undamaged. Where local glacial relics of highly endangered invertebrates are threatened by closing in with succession in small screes, management with cutting bushes/ trees can exceptionally be necessary. Natural succession should normally not be considered as a problem because it is not human-induced. Conservation is then effective when free evolution is possible, like within protected areas. ‘Manage landscape features’ refers to the need to better protect this kind of habitats showing a high degree of naturalness in land-use planning, especially when no specific regulation can be applied (e.g. no protected species or habitat, outside a protected area, outside a N2000 site).

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
8150: ALP XX, ATL XX, CON U1, MED FV, PAN FV

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat has some capacity to recover naturally, but it is dependent on some geomorphological processes which are very slow (erosion). As far as we know, there is no experiment of restoration of screes.

Summary:
This habitat comprises siliceous screes and moraines of warm exposures, derived from a diversity of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks on the lower slopes of mountain ranges of the nemoral zone. Often the screes are mixed with fine soil. The vegetation can be completely lacking, but moss- or lichen-dominated, species-poor communities can occur on rock surfaces and fine soil accummulated in crevices can support a variety  of forb- or fern-dominated vegetation. Siliceous screes in general have a lower species richness than calcareous screes but ferns can be diverse and luxuriant. Natural succession on more stable screes results in the development of scrub and woodland, not included here. Quarrying, construction of transport infrastructures and leisure activities pose threats and more accessible slopes can be affected by grazing.

References:
Sadlo, J. 2009. Svaz SCB Galeopsion Oberdorfer1957. In: Chytry, M. (ed.). Vegetacy Czeske Republiky. 2. Ruderalni, plevelova, skalni a sufova vegetace. Praha Academia: 452-461.
ValachoviÄ, M., Dierssen, K., Dimopoulos, P., HadaÄ, E., Loidi, J., Mucina, L., Rossi, G., Valle Tendero, F., Tomaselli, M. 1997. The vegetation on screes - survey of higher syntaxa in Europe. Folia Geobot. Phytotax. 32: 173-192.

Criterion A Text:
The values given above were calculated with the territorial data only, taking an average value of reduction when ranges were provided, and downscaling the current area provided by the UK (200 km² instead of 660). The resulting values lead to the category Least Concern (LC).

Criterion B Text:
Sub-criteria of B1 and B2 are not evaluated because the values for EOO and AOO are well above the thresholds. Assessment of criteria under B lead to the category Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
No value could be calculated, because there were too many missing data and there are also major inconsistencies among countries in current areas reported.

Synthesis:
This habitat type qualifies for a Least Concern status at the European scale because its reduction in quantity over the last 50 years is small. Reduction in quality could not be assessed despite known processes (e.g. stabilisation and encroachment of screes like in Germany or France). Yet, this status hides strong differences in context among parts of Europe and it will be worth having further examination for sub-types.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Further examination may be needed for screes from ancient siliceous mountain ranges (Massif Central, Harz-Eifel-Ardennes, Massif armoricain, Black-Forest, Vosges, ...) and also for a subtype of screes from the northern UK.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: E. Bergmeier
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, M. Chytrý, R. Delarze, L.-M. Delescaille, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, J. Loidi, V. Matevski, A. Mikolajczak, M. ValachoviÄ, D. Paternoster, P. Perrin, U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Ssymank, R. Tzonev
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
F2.2a Alpine and subalpine ericoid heath

Habitat Description:
Dwarf-shrub communities in arctic-boreal, alpine and subalpine regions dominated mostly by Ericaceous species such as Calluna vulgaris, Empetrum hermaphroditum, Loiseleuria procumbens, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. gaultherioides, V. vitis-idaea. Some chamaephytes, as well as hemicryptophytes occur constantly, usually with lower abundance values. The unit comprises mainly natural, partly semi-natural (or secondary distributed), acidophilous communities of dwarf-shrub heaths on siliceous bedrock. In some cases, the stands from calcareous bedrock are included as well, because of their distinctive physiognomy or/and soil characteristics that are different from those that are supposed to be on limestone bedrock because of the thick layer of undecomposed humus. These communities are nearly always mono-dominant and relatively species poor. Also here, species from the families Ericaceae and Empetraceae play an important role, as well as species from the genus Dryas. Rhododendron-heath in sheltered sites and Loiseleuria-heath on exposed ridges build close stands mainly in the southern part of the distributional range and only rarely in the arctic, due to ecological differences between arctic and high-alpine habitats, such as greater amounts of snow in alpine areas, and the relatively long, cold nights of the alpine summer compared to the continuous daylight of the arctic growing season. The vegetation of this habitat is mainly classified within the class Loiseleurio-Vaccinietea that comprises arctic-boreal tundra dwarf shrub and relict (sub)alpine acidophilous heathlands. Based on habitat variability, e.g. mass and length of snow cover and thickness and quality of soil, the communities can be divided into several subtypes: cryo- and xerophilous communities on shallow soils and mesophilous communities on deeper soils. Subalpine acidophilous, mesophilous communities of the Rhododendro-Vaccinion with a vicariate West Carpathian unit Vaccinion myrtilli (sometimes synonymised with the Genisto-Vaccinion), and the Balkan unit Bruckenthalion spiculifoliae represent another side of variability in comparison with the xero-, cryophilous communities of the Loiseleurio procumbentis-Vaccinion, which occur on windswept slopes and summits. All these vegetation types occupy mainly shallow and skeletal acidic soils and rarely basic bedrocks in places with a thick layer of litter and/or raw humus. In cold atlantic and subcontinental regions also heath communities of the alliance Genisto-Vaccinion (Calluno-Ulicetea) in montane to subalpine belts are included, heaths tolerating humid to hyperhumid climate. Further, communities belonging to the Ericion carneae (Rhododendro hirsuti-Ericetea carneae) from the subalpine and alpine zone, representing dwarf heath and short 'krummholz' on rocky calcareous soils, outcrops, lapies ('karren') and boulders are included into this habitat type. Finally, within this habitat type, plant communities of the order Kobresio-Dryadetalia (Carici rupestris-Kobresietea) may be found. These comprise chionophobous dwarf-shrub and cushion shaped wind-exposed fjell-field vegetation on the ridges and plateaus. The habitat is found almost in all mountains of Eurasia from the Balkan Peninsula to the Arctic (Pyrenees, Apennines, Alps, Carpathians, Dinarides, Scandinavia) and in montane regions of Eurasia and North America.
Indicators of quality:
This vegetation can be threatened by (over)grazing, burning, extirpation of shrub for cultivation, global warming and increased nutrient content. In the areas, where it presents secondary vegetation, it may be subject to afforestation or natural succession towards woodland.
The following characteristics are considered as indicators of good quality:
dense stands of diagnostic Ericaceous species
absence or low cover of tree species
absence of tall and dense scrubs
no indication of overgrazing
presence and high cover of lichens (Cladonia and Cetraria species)
absence of nutrient-demanding species

Characteristic species:
Flora:
Vascular plants: Agrostis rupestris, Antennaria dioica, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Avenella flexuosa, Avenula versicolor, Belardiochloa variegata, Brachypodium genuense, Bruckenthalia spiculifolia Calluna vulgaris, Carex curvula, Chamaerion angustifolium, Daphne striata, Dryas integrifolia, Dryas octopetala, Empetrum hermaphroditum, Erica carnea, Festuca supina, Genista germanica, Genista radiate, Hieracium alpinum, Huperzia selago, Juncus trifidus, Juniperus sibirica, Loiseleuria procumbens, Luzula luzuloides, Molinia arundinacea, Nardus stricta, Oreochloa disticha, Pedicularis lanata, Polygonum viviparum, Potentilla erecta, Pteridium aquilinum, Rhododendron ferrugineum, Rhododendron hirsutum, Rhododendron myrtifolium, Rhodothamnus chamaecistus, Salix glauca, Sesleria comosa, Solidago virgaurea, Vaccinium myrtillus, Vaccinium gaultherioides, Vaccinium vitis-idea.
Mosses and lichens: Alectoria ochroleuca, Cetraria islandica, C. nivalis, Cladonia arbuscula, C. coccifera, C. pyxidata, C. rangiferina, Dicranum scoparium, Fissidens osmundoides, Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi, P. alpinum, Polytrichum strictum, Tortella fragilis.

Classification:
EUNIS:
F2.2 Evergreen alpine and subalpine scrub
EuroVegChecklist:
Caricion nardinae Nordhagen 1936
Dryadion integrifoliae Ohba ex Daniëls 1982
Loiseleurio-Arctostaphylion Kalliola 1939
Phyllodoco-Vaccinion myrtilli Nordhagen 1943
Loiseleurio-Vaccinion Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et Jenny 1926
Rhododendro ferrugineae-Vaccinion Schnyder 1930
Bruckenthalion spiculifoliae Horvat 1949
Rhododendrion caucasici Onipchenko 2002
Salici kazbekensis-Empetrion nigrae Onipchenko 2002
Ericion carneae Rübel ex Grabherr et al. 1993
Genisto pilosae-Vaccinion Br.-Bl. 1926
Vaccinion myrtilli Krajina 1933 (sensu Kliment et al. 2010)
Annex 1:
4060 Alpine and Boreal heaths
(small parts may have been assigned under 4030)
Emerald:
F2.22 Alpine acidocline Rhododendron heaths
F2.26 Bruckenthalia heaths
MAES-2:
Heathlands and scrubs
IUCN:
3.1 Subarctic shrubland
3.3 Boreal shrubland
3.4 Temperate shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Dwarf-shrub communities are present in arctic-boreal, alpine and subalpine regions.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, but has data gaps in the Carpathians and the Balkan mountains. Data sources: NAT, EVA, BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
The recent trend over the past 50 years consists of two contrary components, at least in the Alps: (1) a significant increase of mesophilous communities belonging to Rhododendro-Vaccinion since 1970 due to grazing abandonment. (2) a local decrease of very low ericoid shrubs of Loiselerio-Vaccinion and Arctospahyllo-Cetrarion due to reshaping of ski pistes. Altogehter, the rate of increase overshoots the rate of decrease. The overall trend in quantity over the last 50 years is an increase of 6.0% (EU28) and 5.2% (EU28+).

Trends in Quality:
Over the past 50 years, an average decline in both biotic and abiotic habitat quality has been observed by territorial experts, which was mainly due to overgrazing, secondary succession after abandonment of grazing and reshaping of ski pistes. Among recently monitored sites in the U.K., more than 25% of the extent of the habitat was found to be in unfavourable condition, largely as a result of the effects of grazing/trampling and burning; some of this in declining condition and some recovering. There is almost no information available regarding the historic reduction of quality.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
There are no data available for Norway where this habitat type has large occurrences outside EU28. About 40% of the habitat lies within Europe and about 30% in the EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a wide range of distribution in Europe, the EOO is > 50000 km².

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat type occurs in arctic-boreal, alpine and subalpine regions only. Anyway, it has a large natural distribution.

Pressures and Threats:
The habitat type is threatened both by overgrazing/trampling and natural succession after abandonment of grazing on secondary sites. The former occurs on gentle slopes and easy reachable locations, the latter on steeper slopes and more remote locations. Intensive grazing weakens the structure and function of the habitat. Another major threat comes from sport and leisure structures, mainly the construction of skiing complexes and reshaping of ski pistes. Furthermore, the habitat is supposed to be affected by climate change as global warming will affect the tree line and increase the growth of bushes.

Conservation and Management:
Many occurrences of this habitat type are in Natura 2000 sites and they are legally protected.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
4060: ALP FV, ATL U2, BOR U1, MED XX

Summary:
The habitat type comprises ericoid dwarf-shrub communities in arctic-boreal, alpine and subalpine regions, occurring on mostly siliceous bedrocks with acidic soils and thick raw humus. The vegetation is typically species-poor, dominated by various ericoid sub-shrubs and often with an extensive bryophyte and/or lichen carpet, and its composition varies with differences in regional and local climate, particular with the degree of exposure/shelter from wind and cold and with substrate. It is also often influenced by grazing, which if intensive can result in a more open and grassy character. Abandonment of nomad livestock rearing in mountains can allow its spread and encroachment of shrubs. Tourism and recreation in the uplands also threaten the habitat which needs legal protection where vulnerable.

References:
Billings, W. D. 1973. Arctic and Alpine Vegetations: Similarities, Differences, and Susceptibility to Disturbance. Bioscience 23(12): 697-704.
Grabherr, G. and Mucina L. (eds) Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs. Teil II – Natürliche waldfreie Vegetation. Gustav Fischer, Jena.
Kliment, J., Šibík, J., Šibíková, I., Jarolímek, I., Dúbravcová, Z. and UhlíÅ™ová, J. 2010. High-altitude vegetation of the Western Carpathians — a syntaxonomical review. Biologia 65/6: 965-989.
Lünterbusch, C.H. and Daniels, F.J.A. 2004. Phytosociological aspect of Dryas intergrifolia vegetation on moist-wet soil in Northwest Greenland. Phytocoenologia 34(2): 241-270.
Onipchenko, V.G. 2002. Alpine vegetation of the Teberda Reserve, the northwestern Caucasus. Veröffentlichungen des Geobotanischen Institutes der ETH, Stiftung Rübel, Zürich 130: 1-168.
Šibík, J., Kliment, J., Dúbravcová, Z., BÄ›lohlávková, R. and Paclová, L. 2006. Syntaxonomy and nomenclature of the alpine heaths (the class Loiseleurio-Vaccinietea) in the Western Carpathians. Hacquetia 5/1: 37–71.
ZupanÄiÄ, M. 1992. Zur syntaxonomischen Problematik des Verbandes Bruckenthalion spiculifoliae Ht. 1949 (nom. nud.) und der Assoziation Junipereto-Bruckenthalietum Ht. 1938 (nom. nud.) auf der Balkan-Halbinseln. Feddes Repertorium 103(3/4): 243-268.

Criterion A Text:
The figures for A1 have been calculated from the territorial data sheets. The calculated trend over the past 50 years results in category Least concern (LC). Criteria A2a, A2b and A3 have not been evaluated due to a lack of data.

Criterion B Text:
The AOO and EOO are much larger than the thresholds for criteria B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The values for C/D1 have been calculated from the territorial data sheets. The calculated figures result in the category Least concern (LC). It is likely that there will be a future decline in quality because of global warming. However, it is unsure whether the thresholds for C/D2 will be met, therefore these criteria have been assessed as unknown.

Synthesis:
We consider this habitat least concerned. It is relatively widespread across Europe and a slight increase in area has been observed over the past 50 years. The calculated decrease in quality is below the thresholds to qualify this habitat as Near threatened. The geographic distribution is also not restricted.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Calluna and Erica heaths (Austria), Empetrum and Arctostaphylos communities (Bulgaria), Calluna heaths (Finland), Vaccinium myrtillus–Raco

Assessors:
C. Bita-Nicolae, M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: A. ÄŒarni & J. Šibík.
Territorial data:  E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, A.B.G. Averis, A.M. Averis, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, J. A. Campos, A.ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, R.Delarze, P. Dimopoulos, P. Finck, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, N. Juvan, T. Kontula, V. Matevski, A. Mikolajczak,  Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, D. Paternoster, P. Perrin, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Rusakova, J. Šibík, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, N. Velkovski, D. Viciani.


Habitat Type Name:
H3.1c Temperate, lowland to montane siliceous inland cliff

Habitat Description:
Siliceous (rich in quartz and silicate minerals such as mica or feldspar) rock walls and cliffs in the nemoral biogeographic domain except those in the high mountains and in the sea spray coastal zone. Siliceous cliffs consist chiefly of metamorphic more or less acid rocks such as slate, schist, gneiss and quartzite, sedimentary rock such as sandstone, or of igneous rocks such as granite, porphyry and diorite. Non-calcareous but more or less base-rich igneous volcanic rocks such as andesite, trachyte and basalt are also included. The vegetation in the rock fissures and crevices consists of vascular plants such as small ferns, succulents and rosulate herbs, on the rock surface also mosses and hepatics, crustose (e.g. Aspicilia, Lecanora, Lecidea s.l., Lepraria, Pertusaria, Rhizocarpon, Rinodina, Trapelia) and foliose lichens (e.g. Parmelia s.l. Umbilicaria), further epi- and endolithic micro-algae and other micro-organisms. Asplenium, Dianthus, Saxifraga, Sedum and Silene are important vascular plant genera in extra-alpine temperate siliceous cliffs. Among the mosses the genera Hedwigia, Grimmia, Racomitrium and Schistidium are particularly common on siliceous rocks, the latter three are species-rich.
Temperate lowland to montane siliceous cliffs are generally rather poor in plant species (but may be rich in lichens). The species composition depends on the biogeographic (thermic and oceanic) position, on rock type, humidity and water availability. Several species are considered glacial relicts.
The habitat type occurs throughout nemoral Europe from the British Isles and Northwest Spain to the Caucasus and the Ural Mountains and probably much further into Central Asia. It is particularly well-known in Galicia (Spain), the Massif Central, the slate-dominated suboceanic Rhenish Massif and generally in the Central European Uplands, where it is represented by gneiss and granitic rocks of the Rheno-Hercynian zone. The slate-dominated parts of the Carpathian Mountains are another main area of temperate montane siliceous cliffs.
Indicators of good quality:
Temperate lowland to montane siliceous cliffs is a habitat of high phytogeographical significance. Although not species-rich it harbours rare species and disjunct populations including many relict cryptogams of nordic-alpine distribution. There are also a few narrow endemics such as in the northwest Iberian Peninsula and in the Carpathians.  Habitat quality must be assessed at regional level and in view of the ecoregional variation. It is crucial to consider bryophytes and lichens. The occurrence of rare and relict species is a main criterion.
The following characteristics may be used as indicators of favourable quality:
Occurrence of rare species of lichens, bryophytes, ferns and phytogeographically significant vascular plant taxa,
Presence of sizable open exposed rock and of different aspects of rock walls, different exposure to insolation, moisture and rock structures such as vertical rock faces, overhangs, cavities, rock shelters, and ledges
Contact with natural habitats such as screes, boulder fields, rock shrubs and pioneer grasslands
Absence of quarrying and control structures
Absence of garbage dumping and nutrient input from above the cliff
Absence of rock climbing facilities

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Achillea chamaemelifolia, Asarina procumbens, Asplenium (adiantum-nigrum subsp. adiantum-nigrum, marinum, obovatum subsp. billotii, septentrionale, trichomanes subsp. trichomanes, x alternifolium), Aurinia saxatilis subsp. saxatilis, Coincya monensis subsp. cheiranthos, Centaurea (pectinata, prolongoi), Dianthus (graniticus, henteri, pyrenaicus subsp. attenuatus), Epilobium collinum, Hieracium schmidtii, Jovibarba heuffelii, Leucanthemum monspeliense, Minuartia recurva subsp. recurva, Polypodium vulgare, Primula minima, Saxifraga (hypnoides, paradoxa, rosacea subsp. steinmannii, rosacea subsp. sternbergii), Sedum (hirsutum subsp. hirsutum, stefco), Sempervivum calcareum, Sesamoides purpurascens subsp. suffruticosa, Silene (nutans subsp. dubia, rupestris), Veronica bachofenii, Woodsia ilvensis
Bryophytes: Bartramia halleriana, Bartramia pomiformis, Coscinodon cribrosus, Dicranum scoparium, Grimmia (affinis, arenaria, decipiens, donniana, hartmannii, laevigata, montana, muehlenbeckii, ovalis, trichophylla), Hedwigia (ciliata, integrifolia), Hypnum cupressiforme, Isopterygiopsis muelleriana, Isothecium alopecuroides, Metzgeria conjugata, Polytrichum piliferum, Ptychomitrium incurvum, Ptychomitrium polyphyllum, Racomitrium (affine, fasciculare, heterostichum, sudeticum), Rhabdoweisia (crenulata, crispata, fugax), Schistidium spp.
Lichens: Acarospora (paupera, tongletii), Aspicilia (cinerea, gibbosa, morioides, recedens, simoensis), Caloplaca (atroflava, crenularia, saxicola, subpallida), Calycium corynillum, Catillaria (atomarioides, chalybeia), Chrysothrix chlorina, Cornicularia normoerica, Diploschistes scruposus, Ephebe lanata, Fuscidia (austeri, kochiana), Haematomma ochroleucum, Lasallia pustulata, Lecanactis dilleniana, Lecanora (bicincta, cenisia, demissa, intricata, lojkaeana, orosthea, polytropa, rupicola, subcarnea, subplanata, swartzii), Lecidea (atomaria, erratica, fuliginosa, fuscoatra, griseoatra, lapidacea, leucophaea, variegatula), Lepraria (latebrarum, membranacea, neglecta), Leprocaulon microscopicum, Micarea (intrusa, subnigrata), Mosigia intercedens, Opegrapha (gyrocarpa, lithyrga, zonale), Ophioparma ventosa, Parmelia (conspersa, disjuncta, incurva, loxodes, mougeotii, omphalodes, panniformis, pulla, somloensis, sorediosa, stygia, verrucilifera), Pertusaria (corallina, excludens, flavicans, iridioides, lactea, leucosora, maculosa, oculata), Phylliscum demangeonii, Placopsis lambii, Porpidia (albocaerulescens, athroocarpa, glaucophaea, pseudomelinoides), Rhizocarpon (distinctum, eupetraeum, geographicum, hochstetteri, lecanorinum, obscuratum, polycarpum, viridiatrum), Rimularia insularis, Rinodina (aspersa, atrocinerea, interpolata, occulta), Schaereria tenebrosa, Sphaeroporus fragilis, Stereocaulon (dactylophyllum, evolutum, leucophaeopsis, vesuvianum), Thelidium rehmii, Trapelia (coarctata, involuta, mooreana, obtegens, placodioides), Tremolecia atrata, Umbilicaria (grisea, hirsuta)

Classification:
EUNIS:
H3.1 Acid siliceous inland cliffs
EuroVegChecklist:
Asarinion procumbentis (Br.-Bl. in Meier et Br.-Bl. 1934) Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1952
Asplenion marini Segal 1969
Asplenion septentrionalis Gams in Oberd. 1938
Hypno-Polypodion vulgaris Mucina 1993
Sedion stefco V. RanÄ‘elovicÌ in Mucina et al. 2014
Sesamoidion suffruticosae Ortiz et Pulgar 2000
Annex 1:
8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation
Emerald:
H3.1 Acid siliceous inland cliffs
MAES-2:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
6. Rocky areas

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type is widely distributed throughout nemoral Europe.

Comment EU28:
no data from Estonia, Latvia, Luxembourg

Comment EU28+:
no data from Estonia, Latvia, Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, Serbia

Trends in Quantity:
Most countries - except Bulgaria, France and Lithuania - have reported a stable current trend in quantity. Over the last 50 years, a slight decrease (EU28: -2,5%; EU28+: -3.2%) in quantity was recorded, which occurred mainly as a consequence of mining and quarrying operations as well as construction of transportation corridors. Though the reported trends differ from country to country (-20% to stable), the overall trend seems to be realistic on a European scale. There are only limited data available concerning historical and future trends but in general stable or slightly decreasing trends were reported.

Trends in Quality:
Most of the countries - except Slovakia - have reported a stable current trend in quality. Over the last approximately 50 years, however, a decrease in quality has occurred, affecting 14% (EU28) or 21% (EU28+) of the total area with a severity of degradation of 9% and 26%, respectively. The big difference between EU28 and EU28+ is due to Swiss data. Switzerland has reported a slight to severe trend in degradation of quality indicators, affecting 40% of extent. The reduction in quality is mainly based on alteration of habitats and disturbance to native biota caused by human activities (securing of cliffs and rock outcrops alongside transportation corridors, impacts of outdoor sports (especially rock climbing), rehabilitation of quarries). Furthermore, secondary habitats are affected by biocenotic evolution. Due to a lack of data, it is not possible to describe both historical and future trends in quality.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
< 50%. The habitat type occurs throughout nemoral Europe from the British Isles and Northwest Spain to the Caucasus and Ural Mountains and probably much further into Central Asia.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat type is widely distributed throughout nemoral Europe and the EOO is > 50000 km².

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat type occurs on siliceous rock walls and cliffs except those in high mountains and is widely distributed throughout nemoral Europe, where it can occupy large areas.

Pressures and Threats:
In general, lowland to montane cliffs are more threatened by human activities than high mountain cliffs. The main threat comes from quarrying, especially open cast mining, which causes the destruction of sites. In addition, loss of habitats is also caused by construction of transportation infrastructure. Furthermore, the habitat type is affected by outdoor activities, air pollution, succession processes and changes of abiotic conditions due to climate change, all of which have negative impacts on the habitat quality. Outdoor activities like rock climbing cause disturbances on the local flora and fauna and effectuate modifications on the structure and functioning of this habitat type due to cleaning of climbing routes (e. g. removal of vegetation and loose rocks). The securing of cliffs for safety reasons - e. g. alongside transportation corridors - affects the habitat in more or less the same way.

Conservation and Management:
Lowland siliceous cliffs are important natural habitats in low mountain ranges and hilly landscapes. Therefore, no specific management measures are required except avoiding disturbance and destruction of sites. The protection of those habitats and corresponding species is realised best in protected areas, where natural processes are allowed to take place without any restrictions. To avoid further loss and deterioration of sites, these habitats have to be incorporated more strongly in spatial development planning.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
8220: ALP FV, ATL XX, BLS FV, CON U1, MED XX, PAN U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Once completely destroyed, the habitat has almost no capacity to recover, as it's origin is dependent on geomorphological processes.  In the case of damage without destruction of sites, at least for plants, the natural recovery of this habitat is rather fast when it is not isolated from similar habitats. The recolonization of sites by poor disperser among specialised plants and breeding birds after strong disturbances may take longer.

Summary:
Included here are siliceous rock walls and cliffs in the nemoral biogeographic domain except those in the high mountains and in the sea spray coastal zone. They comprise diverse  metamorphic, sedimentary and igneous rocks but also some non-calcareous but more or less base-rich igneous volcanics. The vegetation in the rock fissures and crevices consists of vascular plants such as small ferns, succulents and rosulate herbs, on the rock surface also mosses and hepatics, crustose and foliose lichens, micro-algae and other micro-organisms. Natural succession can lead to scrub and woodland development and threats come from mining and quarrying operations and due to construction of transportation corridors and outdoor sports (especially rock climbing). As these habitats are highly natural, no specific management except avoiding disturbances and destruction of sites is required through careful planning.

References:
Grabherr, G. and Mucina, L. (eds.): Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs. Teil II. Natürliche waldfreie Vegetation. Gustav Fischer, Jena
Juvan, N., ÄŒarni, A. and Jogan, N. 2011. Chasmophytic vegetation of silicate rocks on the southern outcrops of the Alps in Slovenia. Wulfenia 18: 133-156.
Láníková, D. and Lososová, Z. 2009. Rocks and Walls: Natural Versus Secondary Habitats. Folia Geobotanica 44(3): 263-280

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated by using the territorial data sheets. The calculated trend in the last 50 years is a reduction of about 2.5% (EU28) and 3.2% (EU28+), respectively (resulting in the category Least Concern). No data (%) available or unsufficient data for A2a, A2b and A3.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO and AOO are much larger than the thresholds under criterion B, leading to the category Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
The values for C/D1 were calculated by using the territorial data sheets. The calculated figures result in a Least Concern category. No quantitative data are available for C/D2, C/D3, C1, C2, C3, D1, D2 and D3.

Synthesis:
In spite of a variable quality among the reported territorial data and a lack of data from non EU28 Balkan States, the calculated trends seem to be reliable. The calculated decreases in quality and quantity are well below the thresholds to qualify for a Near Threatened status. Therefore, the overall Red List status is Least Concern.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Serpentine cliffs and cliffs related to Northern Atlantic hepatic mats are in need of further examination.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: E. Bergmeier
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, A. B. G. Averis, A. M. Averis, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, G. Buffa,  A. ÄŒarni, M. Chytrý, R. Delarze, L. M. Delescaille, P. Dimopoulos, P. Finck, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, J. Loidi, V. Matevski, D. MilanoviÄ‡, B. Nygaard, P. Perrin, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Rusakova, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani, Å½. Škvorc
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso Del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
G2.4 Olea europaea - Ceratonia siliqua woodland

Habitat Description:
This habitat includes woodland dominated by arborescent Olea europaea var. sylvestris, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus, Myrtus communis or, in the Canary Islands, by Olea europaea subsp. cerasiformis and Pistacia atlantica. It is closely related to the habitat type F5.1/2 Mediterranean maquis and arborescent matorral and, in fact, only a few stands have a sufficiently tall, closed canopy to qualify as this woodland type. All formations occur in the thermo-Mediterranean zone, or the thermo-Canarian for the Olea europaea subsp. cerasiformis type. The most typical example of the Olea europaea var. sylvestris-dominated formations with Ceratonia siliqua and Pistacia lentiscus are found in the northern Tunisia (Djebel Ichkeul) and in southern Andalusia (Tamo communis-Oleetum sylvestris, extinct?), in Menorca (Prasio majoris-Oleetum sylvestris), Sardinia, Sicily, Calabria and Crete. Some carob-dominated facies of the previous unit in Djebel Ichkeul (Tunisia) from the most typical example of the Ceratonia siliqua-dominated formations, often with Olea europaea var. sylvestris and Pistacia lentiscus. Carob-dominated formations are also found in Mallorca (Cneoro tricocci-Ceratonietum siliquae), in eastern Sardinia, in southeastern Sicily, in Puglia, in South Greece, Crete, in northeastern Algeria and in Cyrenaica. The use of these forests as agropastoral systems in some regions results in a physiognomy similar to the dehesas.
Indicators of quality:
Natural composition and intact woodland canopy                                          
Vigorous regeneration of typical woody species
Structural diversity/ complexity with (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers with a considerable number of carob- and/or olive-tree individuals at the tree layer
Typical flora and fauna composition of the region
Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying or standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi
Presence of natural disturbance such as treefall openings with natural regeneration
Long historical continuity (ancient woodland) with high species diversity
Survival of larger stands of forest without anthropogenic fragmentation and isolation (to support fauna which need large undisturbed forests)
Absence of ruderal, invasive and planted non-native species in all layers (flora & fauna)
Absence of signs of disturbances (either rare or of low intensity)
Low levels of soil compactness, absence of trampling and erosion and well developed Ah horizon as good indicators for the lack of overgrazing.

Characteristic species:
Ceratonia siliqua, Olea europaea subsp. cerasiformis, Olea europaea var. sylvestris, Pistacia atlantica, P. lentiscus, Arbutus unedo, Arisarum vulgare, Arum pictum subsp. sagittifolium, Asparagus acutifolius, Asphodelus ramosus, Brachypodium retusum, Bunium macuca subsp. balearicum, Calicotome infesta, C. villosa, Cistus incanus subsp. creticus, C. salvifolius, Clematis flammula, Dactylis glomerata agg., Dracunculus muscivorus, Euphorbia spinosa, Galium rubrum, Geranium purpureum, Genista majorica, Juniperus oxycedrus, J. phoenicea, Lonicera implexa, Myrtus communis, Phillyrea latifolia, Piptatherum coerulescens, P. miliaceum, Pistacia terebinthus, Prasium majus, Bituminaria bituminosa, Quercus coccifera, Rhamnus alaternus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Rubia peregrina, Smilax aspera, Teucrium flavum, Thymus vulgaris, Trifolium campestre and Urginea maritima.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G2.4 [Olea europaea]-[Ceratonia siliqua] woodland
EuroVegChecklist:
Ceratonio-Pistacion lentisci Zohary ex Zohary et Orshan 1959
Oleo-Ceratonion siliquae Br.-Bl. ex Guinochet et Drouineau 1944
Mayteno canariensis-Juniperion canariensis Santos & Fern. Galván ex Santos 1983 corr. Rivas-Martínez et al.1993
Mayteno umbellatae-Oleion maderensis Capelo, J.C. Costa, Lousã, Fontinha, Jardim, Sequeira & Rivas-Martínez 2000
Annex I:
9320 Olea and Ceratonia forests
Emerald:
G2 Broadleaved evergreen woodland
MAES:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
9.2 Olive-carob forest

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is typical of the Mediterranean Biogeographical region due to its distribution range that almost coincides with the limits of the "true" Mediterranean vegetation and prevailing climate. Its presence in the Canary Islands belonging to the Macaronesian region is characterized by other species combination and dominant species the Olea europaea subsp. cerasiformis and Pistacia atlantica.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, except possibly for the East-Adriatic coastal area. Data sources: Art17, EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
The trend in quantity is in general stable and the past 50 years only a slight reduction in the extent of the habitat across the Mediterranean and Canarian zones has been recorded following the territorial data sheets with the national experts assessments.

Trends in Quality:
The trend in quality is currently generally stable; the average status taking into consideration the past 50 years is slight decline with moderate severity.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
It is estimated that in the EU28 more than 85% of the habitat is represented.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The distribution area of the habitat is very extensive and characteristic of the thermo-Mediterranean vegetation zone delineation.

Pressures and Threats:
This habitat type has been actively modified by occasionally intense human influence. Such human activities have resulted in retrogressive succession of olive-carob woodlands towards arborescent matorral, maquis or garrigues. Overgrazing and cutting for firewood, as well as the local intensive degradation caused by stock farming, are the main pressures and threats for the Olea-Ceratonia woodlands in the Mediterranean and the Macaronesian biogeographical regions.

Conservation and Management:
Taking into consideration that this habitat has been actively modified by occasionally intense human influence, which has resulted in retrogressive succession of olive-carob woodlands towards arborescent matorral, maquis or garrigues, the conservation management measures should be related to the restoration/improvement of these woodland habitats in various aspects. For example, these measures should aim at: i) a vertical stand structure, with a considerable number of carob- and/or olive-tree individuals at the tree layer and an intact woodland canopy, ii) regulations of the grazing activity so that the regeneration of typical woody species becomes vigorous, iii) strengthening the presence and abundance of a given set of typical species or functional traits (i.e. morphological, physiological and life history characteristics) which can be used as proxy indicators of biodiversity level and succession stage, iv) lack of overgrazing which would prevent the soil compactness, absence of trampling and erosion and would allow a well developed Ah horizon.

Summary:
This habitat of woodland dominated by arborescent Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus or Myrtus communis is a very local feature of the hot lowlands of the Mediterranean and Canaries. Much modified by occasionally intense human influence, it can present a retrogression towards arborescent matorral, maquis or garrigues or a dehesa-like appearance. Overgrazing, cutting for firewood and fires are the main threats. Rectification of structure, encouraging regeneration and limiting grazing are the chief conservation needs.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. (2004) Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe.  Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz. Council of Europe (2010), Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. (2004), EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised.  Report to the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.
European Commission DG Environment (2013), Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats.Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency (2006), European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No   9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell, J.S. (2013), Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.  
Costa, José Carlos, Carlos Neto, Carlos Aguiar, Jorge Capelo, Maria Dalila Espírito Santo, João Honrado, Carlos Pinto-Gomes, Tiago Monteiro-Henriques, Miguel Sequeira and Mario Lousã. "Vascular Plant Communities in Portugal (Continental, the Azores and Madeira)." Global Geobotany 2, no. 1 (2012): 1-180.

Criterion A Text:
Based on the available data from the EU 28 countries national experts assessment (territorial data sheets) it is evident that only a very slight reduction in the extent of the habitat over the past 50 years has been recorded.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has not a restricted geographic distribution and there is no evidence of an ongoing decline in its spatial extent or in its abiotic and biotic quality.

Criterion C/D Text:
Decline in quality has been calculated on the basis of territorial data from 4 countries. From the calculations on the trend in quality, it is evident that the last 50 years a slight decline in quality (extent of degradation equals 21%) of the habitat with a moderate severity (34%) has been occurred.

Synthesis:
The Least Concern (LC) category is assigned to this habitat, because it has an extensive distribution across the Mediterranean and the Canarian biogeographical zones, the reduction in quantity over the past 50 years has been very small and the decline in quality (abiotic and biotic) is slight to moderate affecting a relatively small part of the extent of the habitat.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Sub-habitats may be distinguished for the Macaronesian and the Mediterranean Biogeographical region for further examination and documentation.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: F. Xystrakis
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, L. Casella, J.Capelo, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo,  G. Giusso del Galdo, J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, J. Reymann, S. Sciandrello, Z. Škvorc
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
These are oak-dominated woodlands typical of acidic, free draining soils with mor humus on sandstones, lime-poor metamorphic and igneous rocks and sandy and gravelly soils through the nemoral zone. Extending from the Atlantic fringe of northern Portugal and Spain, across north-west and central Europe into southern Scandinavia, the northern Balkans and on into Russia, the habitat occurs often very fragmentary and scattered now in the prevailingly agricultural semi-natural landscape. Variations in climate across this wide overall range, from extreme Atlantic on the western fringes of Ireland and the British Isles, Lusitanian in northern Iberia, through Continental to Boreal in the east and sub-Mediterranean in the south, have an effect on the associated flora, even though this is not in general very rich.
 The characteristic oaks here are Quercus robur and Q. petraea, often occurring with a subordinate proportion of Betula pendula and/or B. pubescens, which can be pioneers in this habitat following fire or clear-felling, are relatively short-lived survivors in mature forest and which have been selected against in the coppice manage-ment or timber extraction often imposed on these woodlands. Through much of the range in central and north-western Europe, Fagus sylvatica is a potential competitor for canopy dominance even on mineral-poor, sandy soils. On acidic, mineral-rich soils with moder humus co-dominant Fagus-Quercus canopies are better classified under G1.6b Fagus woodland on acid soils. On highly acidic soils to the Boreal east of the range, Pinus sylvestris replaces the oaks as the dominant tree in woodlands with much the same field layer. In central European mountain ranges on shallow siliceous soils Pinus sylvestris can also be present in the canopy in lower proportions. Overall, other associated trees and shrubs are typically very few in this habitat: Sorbus aucuparia and Frangula alnus occur through much of the range, Castanea sativa, Sorbus torminalis and Pyrus cordata in the Sub-Atlantic heartland and, to the west, Ilex aquifolium can be abundant.
 The field layer is generally rather species-poor with calcifuge sub-shrubs, herbs and cryptogams most characteristic and lending a heathy appearance, especially under lighter shade and where grazing is absent. Constant through much of the range are Vaccinium myrtillus, Calluna vulgaris (in more open places), Deschampsia flexuosa, Agrostis capillaris, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Festuca ovina agg., Holcus mollis, Carex pilulifera, Potentilla erecta, Hieracium sabaudum, this sometimes tall and dense on less shallow soils. The commonest bryophytes overall are Polytrichum formosum, Hypnum jutlandicum, Pleurozium schreberi and Leucobryum glaucum.
 Regional variations in the flora in relation to climatic differences can be seen in each of the layers of the vegetation moving away from the Sub-Atlantic woodlands of central and western France, the lower Rhineland and north-east Italy/south-west Switzerland. In the more Atlantic climate of the north-west, there is a further contingent of herbs such as Galium saxatile, Teucrium scorodonia, Hypericum pulchrum, Luzula sylvatica and Blechnum spicant and to the western seaboard of Ireland and the UK an extraordinary additional richness in cryptogams and ferns which, with annual precipitation up to 3000 mm, lends this habitat a great luxuriance. It is this vegetation which forms the richer core of Annex 1 91A0 Sessile Oakwoods in the British Isles.
 On the Atlantic fringe of Portugal and Spain, with annual precipitation up to 2000 mm but with warmer summers and milder winters, Quercus petraea tends to be less prominent than further north but there is often some Q. pyrenaica along with Betula pubescens spp. celtiberica and Arbutus unedo. Cytisus scoparius, Ulex gallii and Erica arborea enrich the sub-shrub layer, with the lianas Rubia peregrina and Tamus communis. Herbs such as Pseudarrhenatherum longifolium, Potentilla montana, Daboecia cantabrica, Crepis lampsanoides, Luzula forsteri, Euphorbia dulcis, Melitis melissophyllum, Silene nutans, Polygonatum odoratum, Galium rotundifolium, Arenaria montana, Genista florida, Rumex papillaris give a South Atlantic or more Mediterranean feel to the flora. 
 In northern Europe and southern Scandinavia, some Eurasian Temperate and Boreal species such as Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Maianthemum bifolium and Luzula pilosa begin to appear in these woodlands and examples on the Baltic-North Sea plain form the core of the Annex 1 9190 Old acidophilous oakwoods with Quercus robur on sandy plains.
 Further east, through Germany, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine and into Russia, where Pinus sylvestris begins to challenge the dominance of Quercus spp. on impoverished acid soils, Juniperus communis and Euonymus verrucosa are additional woody species and, among the herbs, Trientalis europaea, Rubus saxatilis, Pyrola rotundifolia, Orthilia secunda, Calamagrostis arundinacea. At the extreme east of the range, where there is usually less than 800mm precipitation and winter temperatures down to -12°C, Carex digitata, Galium schultesii and Chamaecytisus ruthenicus are characteristic. Among the bryophytes Dicranum polysetum, Eurhynchium angustirete and Rhodobryum roseum are distinctive here.
 Further south, at the eastern sub-Mediterranean limit of this habitat in Austria, the northern Balkans and Romania, the warmer climate is reflected in the appearance of Quercus cerris, Q. dalechampii and Q. polycarpa in the canopy, Pyrus communis and Euonymus verrucosa among the shrubs and Genista tinctoria, G. germanica, Cytisus nigricans, Rubus hirtus and Vincetoxicum hirundinaria in the herb layer. Castanea sativa woods are inlcuded in this forest type as well because of their  species-poor and calcifuge vegetation.
Indicators of good quality:
Sufficient proportion of historically old (ancient) woodland with corresponding species diversity
Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying and standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi
Sufficient structural diversity/ complexity including (semi)natural age structure
Maintenance of humidity beneath an intact canopy where a rich fern and bryophyte component is typical (e.g. for Annex 1 91A0)
Typical flora and fauna composition of the region
Absence of non-native tree species (such as Pseudotsuga menziesii) and absence of invasive aliens in all layers (fauna, flora)
No signs of eutrophication or pollution with e.g. pronounced invasion on nutrient-demanding herbs
Presence of gradients or mosaics with heathland or acidic grassland at the landscape level (not isolated within plantation forests).

Characteristic species:
Tree layer: Quercus robur, Quercus petraea agg., Sorbus aucuparia, Frangula alnus, Betula pendula, B. pubescens; Shrub layer: Ilex aquifolium, Frangula alnus; Herb layer: Deschampsia flexuosa, Hieracium sabaudum, H. lachenalii, Dryopteris carthusiana, Pteridium aquilinum, Rubus fruticosus agg., Vaccinium myrtillus, Holcus mollis, Molinia caerulea, Festuca ovina agg., Agrostis capillaris, Melampyrum pratense, Anthoxanthum odoratum; Moss layer: Dicranum scoparium, Hypnum jutlandicum, Leucobryum glaucum, Pleurozium schreberi, Polytrichum formosum, Rhytidiadelphus loreus.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G1.8 Acidophilous [Quercus]-dominated woodland
EuroVeg checklist:
Quercion petraeae Issler 1931
Convallario majalis-Quercion roboris Shevchyk et Solomakha in Shevchyk et al. 1996
Erythronio-Quercion petraeae Ubaldi et al. 1988
Hymenophyllo-Quercion petraeae Pallas 2000
Molinio-Quercion roboris Scamoni et Passarge 1959
Quercion roboris Malcuit 1929
Quercion robori-pyrenaicae (Braun-Blanquet et al. in P. da Silva et al. 1950 corr. Br.-Bl. et al. 1956) Rivas-Martínez 1975
Vaccinio myrtilli-Quercion petraeae Pallas 1996
Agrostio-Quercion petraeae Scamoni et Passarge 1959
Castaneo-Quercion petraeae Soó 1964
Quercion pyrenaicae Rivas Goday ex Rivas.-Mart. 1964
Annex I:
9190 Old acidophilous oak woods with Quercus robur on sandy plains
91A0 Old sessile oak woods with Ilex and Blechnum in the British Isles
9230 Galicio-Portuguese oak woods with Quercus robur and Quercus pyrenaica
9260 Castanea sativa woods (may relate to other Red List types as well)
Emerald:
G1.8 Acidophilous Quercus dominated woodland
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.1 Boreal Forest
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT::
4.1 Acidophylous oakwood, 4.2 Oak-birch forest, 8.7 Chestnut forest
VME:
F1 Species-poor acidophilous oak and mixed oak forests

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
For the Subatlantic region oak forests on nutrient poor sands associated with extensive heathlands and drift sands (ranging from Flanders to Southern Denmark and eastwards to Poland) have been used for centuries as coppice providing fire wood and oak bark for leather tanning. After about 1930 these uses have been abandoned and the coppices were then transformed to high forest or neglected and in succession towards G1.6b Fagus woodland on acid soils. Atlantic oakwoods in the west of Britain and Ireland are characterised by hyperoceanic bryophytes, many of which have an affinity with the tropics.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete, but maybe too widespread in South-Eastern Europe. Data sources: EVA, Art17, BOHN, NAT.

Comment EU28:
including estimates for Germany (1200) and Sweden (500) ; Macedonia is not included

Comment EU28+:
based on additional areas in Switzerland, Norway and Bosnia-Herzegovina

Trends in Quantity:
Overall calculated trend (for a rather small number of countries) appears stable (+1% change). Decreases in area in Poland and Spain are compensated by increasing areas in Croatia, France and Portugal. A stable trend is also reported for countries without quantitative present historical data (England, Germany). Countries with relatively small areas appear to show (slight) negative trends.

Trends in Quality:
Generally decreasing based on countries with substantial areas (France, Czech Republic, Germany, England, Spain, Poland) but reported as stable for Croatia and Spain; only increasing in the Netherlands (as a result of aging of former coppice woodlands)

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
95% (assuming that the area within EU 28+ corresponds to its total area)

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has EOO much larger than 50,000 km2. However, many oak forests show hardly any rejuvenation and are or will be replaced by more shade-tolerant species such as beech when succession is allowed to proceed.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has a broad natural range on nutrient-poor soils.

Pressures and Threats:
Main threats in countries with substantial areas are: B02 forestry measures (including dead wood removal), H04 air pollution/eutrophication (very relevant on acidic, nutrient-poor soils), K02.01 natural succession (very relevant in oak-dominated woodlands, especially by Fagus) and I01 invasive non-native species (Rhododendron, Prunus serotina). Damage by sheep/deer and overgrazing may be an additional threat (but not just grazing) as well as urbanisation. Climate change is only reported by France.

Conservation and Management:
Woodlands still dominated by Quercus robur or Q. petraea in the tree layer have mostly been planted and explicitly managed as oak dominated woodland in the past. Due to failure of natural rejuvenation of these oak species, current oak woodlands must be managed intensively to avoid encroachment of more shade-tolerant and competitive tree species such as beech. Loss of area by natural succession can be compensated by (natural) conversion of pine afforestations to oak woodland and by succession of abandoned agricultural areas.

Conservation Status:
Annex I types:
9190: ATL U2, BOR U2, CON U2, PAN U1
91A0: ATL U2
9230: ATL XX, MED XX
9260: ALP U1, ATL U1, CON U1, MED U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Natural rejuvenation of the dominant oak species generally requires relatively large open areas (much larger than natural canopy gaps) associated with (historical) disturbances (heathlands, pine afforestations in secundary succession, abandoned fields etc.). However, this is only possible in the presence of sufficient mature oak trees providing the acorns. Severely damaged woodlands without such seed sources must be replanted and require +100 year to recover. Since the herb layer contains many species in common with heathland and poor grassland (often with persistent seed bank) recovery for these particular species is relatively easy. Species groups such as mycorrhizal fungi and hygrophytic bryophytes and ferns recolonize much less easy.

Summary:
These are Quercus robur/petraea-dominated woodlands typical of acidic, free draining soils with mor humus on siliceous rocks and superficials found through the nemoral zone, though often now fragmentary and scattered in a prevailingly agricultural semi-natural landscape. Associated trees and shrubs are few and the field layer is generally species-poor with calcifuge sub-shrubs, herbs and cryptogams most characteristic and lending a heathy appearance. Regional variations in the flora in relation to climatic differences can be seen in each of the layers of the vegetation, most strikingly along the extreme Atlantic fringe where there can be an extraordinary richness of ferns and cryptogams. Competition from Fagus to the west and Pinus sylvestris to the east can cause succssional change and the other main threats are forestry measures, air pollution/eutrophication, invasive non-native species and grazing by sheep and deer.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H.  (2004) Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.
Council of Europe (2010), Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats. Strasbourg:  Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. (2004), EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised. Report to  the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.
European Commission DG Environment (2007), Interpretation Manual of European  Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency (2006), European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No  9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Rodwell, J.S. (2005), Woodlands at the Edge: A European perspective on the Atlantic Oakwood Plant Communities, Botanical Journal of Scotland 57, 121-133.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell,  J.S. (2013), Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005.  Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.

Criterion A Text:
EU 28 based on summed current data and summed reference data (about 50 years ago) available for CZ, HU, NL, FR, PL, RO, PT; EU28+ based additionally on CH and BA.

Criterion B Text:
See Synopsis for current pressures expected to result in a decline in area in next 20 years. Both EOO and AOO are large and do not meet the criteria B1 or B2.

Criterion C/D Text:
Based on countries with more or less complete data. Estimates of percentage affected differ widely between (neighbouring) countries probably as a result of different interpretations or perceptions.

Synthesis:
The habitat is Vulnerable (VU) despite its large range and stable area (criterion A) because about 70% of its area shows a reduction in quality of more than 60% (criterion C/D). Accordingly, its most important Annex I type 9190 (Old acidophilous oak woods with Quercus robur on sandy plains) has conservation status unfavourable-bad in the atlantic and continental biogeographic region.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
G1.8 is a rather artificial forest type including oak-dominated woodlands on nutrient-poor soils in regions differing widely in climatic conditions, ranging from hyperoceanic to mediterranean-atlantic and continental, each region with specific forest t

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J.S. Rodwell, with additions of R.-J. Bijlsma;
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, E. Bendiksen, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, T.E. Brandrud, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, R. Delarze, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, L. De Keersmaeker, J. Janssen, N. Juvan, K.J. Kirby, T. Kontula, J. Loidi, V. Matevski, F. O’Neill, B. Nygaard, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, Å½. Škvorc, V. Stupar, A. Thomaes, M.ValachoviÄ, K. Vanderkerkhove, N. Velkovski , L. Wibail, W. Willner.
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
One striking situation in Europe where beech and oaks can be out-competed by such fast-growing trees as Fraxinus excelsior, Acer pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides, Ulmus glabra and, Tilia platyphyllos and Tilia cordata is on the nutrient-rich soils that accumulate in the humid micro-climate of shady slopes and ravines. Here, with downwash and percolation of ground water, the brown earth soils can be deep and moist, but usually they are free-draining and show a brisk turnover of nutrients and mull humus. Typically, such situations are associated with hard, base-rich, though not always calcareous, rocks and they occur widely throughout steep-sided immature river valleys of the foothills, sub-montane and high mountain belt right across Europe. The terrain is typically complex and rocky, with a heterogenous soil cover and the structure of these woodlands has been vividly described as ‘impetuous’. The distinctive kind of terrain necessary to sustain this habitat means that through Europe, these woodlands have a basic floristic and structural similarity, though variations in regional climate support distinctive contingents of associates with more Continental, Boreal, Alpine, Mediterranean or Atlantic affinities. There is also some floristic variation according to whether the habitat is on very moist colluvium, is humid primarily because of shade or gets some warmth at ravine tops or by virtue of being in more southerly latitudes. More generally across the range, Quercus robur, Q. petraea and Fagus sylvatica can make a minority contribution to the canopy along with Carpinus betulus and Sorbus aucuparia. Through France, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, there is a tendency for more montane stands to be dominated by Acer platanoides, A. pseudoplatanus or A. opalus while those at lower altitudes have abundant lime (Tilia spp.). More particularly, Tilia platyphyllos is the lime more confined to ravine forests while T. cordata is more widely characteristic of G1.Aa Mesic deciduous woodland. The difficult terrain which has protected against exploitation of these woodlands and the extraordinary longevity of both limes means that these ravines can harbour some of the most ancient and majestic trees of Europe.
In the shrub layer Sambucus nigra is characteristic along with Corylus avellana, while the field layer is dominated by luxuriant nitrophilous herbs such as Urtica diocia, Aegopodium podagraria and Impatiens noli-tangere, moisture-loving vernal plants like Allium ursinum and, on the typically base-rich soils, Mercurialis perennis, Geranium robertiamum, Brachypodium sylvaticum and Circaea lutetiana. More especially distinctive are Lunaria rediviva, Helleborus viridis, Aruncus dioicus, Actaea spicata, Aconitum vulparia, Corydalis cava, Equisetum hiemale, Polygonatum verticillatum, and Aconitum paniculatum. Sometimes Allium ursinum can dominate the herb layer. Then, reflecting the high humidity, there are often abundant ferns such as Phyllitis scolopendrium, Polystichum aculeatum. P. setiferum and Gymnocarpium robertianum and bulky mosses thrive on the bare ground exposed by the rapid breakdown of herbage and litter at the close of the growing season. Lichens can also be well developed with species such as Lobaria pulmonaria or Gyalecta ulmi.
In the Atlantic zone, where the climate is more generally cool and humid, woodlands of this kind are less confined to ravines, particularly where base-rich rocks are extensively exposed. Also, approaching or beyond the limits of Acer pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides and even the limes, as in north-west Great Britain, there is a tendency for stands to be dominated by Fraxinus excelsior and Ulmus glabra, or even Corylus avellana in situations exposed to humid oceanic winds. Similar vegetation reported from southern Scandinavia also falls within this habitat type. Northern montane plants such as Prunus padus, Ribes saxatilis, Actaea spicata, Trollium europaeus, Crepis paludosa, Cirsium helenioides and Geranium sylvaticum can here give this habitat a Boreal feel. Towards southern Europe and particularly in sunny ravines at lower altitudes in Czechia, Hungary, Romania and the Pyrenees, there is a thermophilous contingent in this habitat including Cotoneaster integerrimus, Sesleria caerulea, Athericum ramosum, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria and other species more typical of the G1.7a and G1.7b thermophilous woodlands. South of these latitudes, the habitat occurs locally in the Italian pre-Alps and reaches its southern limit in the humid north-facing ravines of the Appennines. In ravines among G3.1c Mediterranean mountain Abies woodland in such situations, there can be occasional Abies alba among the canopy trees.
Indicators of quality:
• No forest exploitation
• Maintenance of the complex ravine topography, micoclimatic conditions and woodland structure
• Sufficient structural diversity/ complexity (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers
• Sufficient proportion of historically old (ancient) woodland with high species diversity
• Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying and standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi
• Rich and luxuriant field and ground layers protected by continuous canopy and locally high humidity with typical flora and fauna composition of the region
• Absence of non-native tree species and absence of invasive aliens in all layers (fauna, flora)
• No signs of eutrophication or pollution, absence of nitrophilous adventives
• No fragmentation and isolation (no major disruptions in the ravine forests with coniferous plantations).
Main Characteristic species:
Tree canopy: Fraxinus excelsior, Acer pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides, A. opalus, Ulmus glabra, Tilia cordata, T. platyphyllos;
Field layer: Urtica diocia, Aegopodium podagraria, Impatiens noli-tangere, Allium ursinum, Mercurialis perennis, Geranium robertiamum, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Circaea lutetiana, Lunaria rediviva, Helleborus viridis, Aruncus dioicus, Actaea spicata, Aconitum vulparia, Corydalis cava, Equisetum hiemale, Aconitum paniculatum, Phyllitis scolopendrium, Polystichum aculeatum, P. setiferum, Gymnocarpium robertianum.

Classification:
EUNIS:
One of two divisions within G1.A Meso- and eutrophic [Quercus], [Carpinus], [Fraxinus] [Acer], [Tilia], [Ulmus] and related woodland, split off from G1.Aa Carpinus and Quercus mesic deciduous woodland;
EuroVegChecklist:
Tilio platyphylli-Acerion Klika 1955
Annex 1:
9180 Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and ravines
Emerald:
G1.A4 Ravine and slope woodland
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
5.8 Ravine and slope forest

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This is an zonal forest habitat, linked to specific topographic situations, soil and microclimatic conditions, which occurs throughout many biogeographical regions, but usually dispersed, more frequent in the Alpine biogeographic region and in mountain ranges of the Continental region.

Map Description:
The map is likely to be incomplete for the Balkan countries and southern Norway, while it gives an overestimation for Bulgaria (where the habitat in fact is restricted to mountain areas). Data sources: EVA, Art17.

Trends in Quantity:
Ther average recent trend over the past 50 years is -25% decrease for EUR28,  ca. -21% for EUR28+ but with less reliability because of bigger data gaps. Differences within Europe are substantial with some countries showing a stable trend, others often around -10 to -15% decrease, some countries like Slovakia and Finland distinctly higher decrease. The average current trend is still slightly decreasing, e.g. in Slovenia, Macedonia or Bulgaria, but in most countries the situation is stable. Future trends are data deficient and difficult to assess, but probably largely stable with some exceptions of continuing decrease e.g. losses for infrastructure of hydropower developments.  Long-term historic trend data are to a large extent missing, an average European value is therefore not given; where data are present they confirm a mixed situation with relatively large historical losses of up to 70 % in part of the area, but in situations where forest cover was already low in the 18th century even a positive historic trend.

Trends in Quality:
Extent of degradation: 25 % (EUR28, 24% for EUR28+), Severity of degradation: ca. -30% (EUR28 & EUR28+), i.a. moderate. The trends have been calculated from >80% of the ravine woodland area. With regard to the highest standard of the indicators of quality completely untouched (pristine) or oldgrowth ancient forests with sufficient dead and dying trees are only present in less than 1 % of the remaining European area. Current trends in quality are on average still decreasing, with a number of countries where it is stable or slightly increasing.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
At a rough estimate 60-70%; this is an azonal type where the distribution on the Balkan and east of the EU28 into Russia is not covered

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
However, while the range is large, the habitat is azonal and naturally restricted usually in all sites to a limited area, typically in ravines. The decline is ongoing as ravines are often used for infrastructure or transportation, partially also d

Justification of Restricted Area:
The overall range is large but the habitat is azonal and naturally restricted usually in all sites to a limited area, typically in ravines.

Pressures and Threats:
Both in EU 28 and EU28, forest replanting with non-native trees and removal of dead and dying trees are to different extents pressures to ravine forests, in addition mainly outside EU28 also forest clearance without replanting. In larger ravines with very steep slopes, forestry pressure is generally lower, however serious pressures and threats are complete losses by reservoirs or dams for hydroenergy, changes in hydrology, or partial losses for infrastructure and transportation/ service corridors in the valleys. Regionally invasive species or fungal micropathogens can play an important role (e.g. Dutch elm disease and ash dieback), also grazing is a threat in some countries. Eutrophication can lead to changes in floristic composition, climate change is a potentially more relevant threat in future when global warming affects the humidity in local ravine climate conditions.

Conservation and Management:
Restoring of ravine forests, where coniferous plantations have been established in the past; Allowing for more wilderness areas and in used forests for more dead wood and old trees. Spatial planning should avoid transportation and new infrastructure in the often narrow valleys or cutting roads into the hillsides in ravine forests. Large reservoirs or dams should not be built in valleys with species-rich ravine forests. Regionally specific grazing regimes or plans to manage invasive species might be needed.

Conservation Status:
Annex I types:
9180: ALP U2, ATL U2, BLS U1, BOR U2, CON U1, MED U1, PAN U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Both naturally and through interventation full recovery of the habitat usually needs time-spans over 200 years. While the tree species can be planted, already the characteristic species of the herb layer include many myrmecochore species (seeds dispersed very slowly over small distances by ants). The full set of characteristic species includes many saproxylic intertebrates and fungi which need a historic habitat continuity, all of these need old and dead trees in a late development stage of forests, some of them even after 2-3 tree generations unable to recolonise new forest stands. Pristine remnants and any ancient woodland therefore needs highest conservation priorities. Ravines where the hydrology of the river has been largely modified might need additional efforts in restoring the hydrology and thus also the typical cool and humid climatic conditions of the ravine forests on the slopes.

Summary:
This habitat is dominated by fast-growing, deciduous broadleaved trees which favour the nutrient-rich soils and humid micro-climate of shady slopes and ravines in the temperate zone and in locally suitable situations further south. Typically, such conditions occur on hard, base-rich, though not always calcareous, rocks in steep-sided immature river valleys of the foothills, sub-montane and high mountain belts, where the terrain is typically complex and rocky, with a heterogenous and sometimes unstable soil cover. Beneath the tall canopy and low shrub layer, there is an abundance of luxuriant nitrophilous herbs and a contingent of moisture-loving vernal plants. Ferns and bryophtes can also be diverse and extensive. Significant pressures are from transportation and service corridors as well as hydropower development, forestry, intensive grazing and, in some regions, fungal micropathogens. Climate change may affect the necessary high local humidity. Careful spatial planning, limitation of inappropriate silviculture and grazing are important conservation measures.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. (2004) Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe.  Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.   
Fischer, R. (2004): Soziologie, Ökologie und Verbreitung des Scolopendrio-Fraxinetum (Hirschzungen-Bergahornschluchtwald) in den Nördlichen Kalkalpen Österreichs und seine Bedeutung. Beiträge zur Naturkunde Oberösterreichs: 13: 185-199           
Rodwell, J.S. & Dring, J. (2001). European significance of British woodland types.  Lancaster: Lancaster University Report to English Nature.   
Walentowski, H.; Ewald, J.; Fischer, A.; Kölling, C. & Türk, W. (2004):Handbuch der natürlichen Waldgesellschaften Bayers.  Bayerische Landesanstalt für Wald und Forstwirtschaft, Verlag Geobotanica, Freising, 441 pp. (ISBN: 3-930560-04-6)

Criterion A Text:
The average trend in quantity has been calculated based on data from ca. 83% of the total area, with some data gaps remaining (within the EU from UK, Greece, Denmark). Differences within Europe are substantial with some countries showing a stable trend, others often around -10 to -15% decrease, some countries like Slovakia and Finland distinctly higher decrease. The calculated span for EU28 is between minimum of -19% and maximum of -33% decrease.

Criterion B Text:
EOO is very large, AOO much smaller due to the dispersed ocurrences. Numerous locations of the habitat exist.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity are weighted average calculated from ca. 60% of the area, where all necessary data were present in territorial data sheets. The data situation outside EU28+ is less reliable and detailed data are difficult to obtain, because these often small occurrences are not covered by Forest Inventories and only partially mapped in many countries. The calculated extent affected seems to take into account mainly moderate severity and has been applied differently by territorial experts. A slight reduction in quality is present over a larger percentage of the area. Information on long historical trends or future trends is incomplete and could not be used for criteria CD2, CD3. Reduction in quality usually affected both abiotic and biotoc changes with in some countries biotic changes prevailing. Criteria C and D were not split in the assessments.

Criterion E Text:
No habitat modelling for ravine woodland exists, however climate change will to some extent influence this azonal habitat in distribution and quality, as it is linked to humid soil and microclimatic conditions.

Synthesis:
The habitat is Near threatened for the EU28, because of a negative quantitative trend (-25%) during the past 40-50 years. This is combined with a moderate decrease in quality over about a quarter of its area, and an assumed slight decrease over a distinctly larger area. The situation in the EU28+ is slightly better, leading to the conclusion Least Concern. Continuing pressures and threats such as losses by extending hydropower use or infrastructure in valleys and ravines are present. Data availability and reliability is medium to low with data gaps in the often dispersed small occurrences. Because of relatively high values of EOO and AOO the habitat does not qualify under criteria B1 and B2, hovever its dispersed occurrences are often very small. Assessments of historic trends were not possible due to data deficiencies.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
While the habitat type is more homogenous than other forest habitats due to its specific azonal character, there is a distinct geographic variation in herb-layer plants and characteristic animal species. Several geographic subtypes (e.g. Anne

Contributors:
Habitat definition: John Rodwell, with additions of A. Ssymank;
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, L. Aunina, S. Bagella, E. Bendiksen, R.-J. Bijlsma, C. Bita-Nicolae,  J. Bölöni, T.E. Brandrud, G. Buffa, J. A. Campos, J.Capelo , L. Casella, ÄŒarni/Juvan, M.  Chytrý, P. Finck, D. SteševiÄ‡,  R. Delarze, M. Dimitrov, D. Espírito-Santo,  C. Giancola, G. Giusso Del Galdo, D. Gigante, Z. KÄ…cki, L.de Keesmaeker, K. J.  Kirby, T. Kontula , J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, V. Matevski,  F. O'Neill, B. Nygaard, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, , B. Renaux U. Riecken, J. Rodwell, S. Sciandrello, Škvorc , A. Ssymank ,V. Stupar, A. Thomaes,  M.ValachoviÄ, K. Vanderkerkhove,  N. Velkovski , D. Viciani, L. Wibail, W. Willner
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
Within the climatic zone where Fagus sylvatica (including in south-eastern Europe ssp. orientalis and ssp. moesiaca) can out-compete other broadleaved trees, this habitat comprises all those beech woodlands on more base-rich and neutral soils including both nutrient-poor rendzinas and more fertile brown earths. They extend from the Atlantic zone, in Great Britain, northern France and the Pyrenees, through the Continental zone into the Alpine region of central Europe, the Carpathians, and the Balkans. Beech is the supreme dominant in the canopy, which, on more productive soils, is often very high, the majestic trees creating a cathedral like effect. However, there are more associates here than on base-poor soils even though they are sometimes in a subordinate canopy tier, with Quercus petraea, Q. robur, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides and Ulmus glabra. Carpinus betulus and Tilia cordata are more common in the warmer lowlands while more strongly thermophilous types in periodically dry situations have Sorbus aria, S. torminalis, Aesculus hippocastanum and Acer campestre. To the Atlantic west, Taxus baccata is characteristic, though groves, where it becomes locally dominant, are included in G3.9a Taxus woodland. Towards higher altitudes, there can be some Abies alba and Picea abies but co-dominant canopies fall within the G3.1b and G3.1c mountain Abies woodland. The shrub layer is typically sparse and the most common species throughout are Crataegus monogyna, C. laevigata, Corylus avellana, Viburnum opulus, V. lantana, Cornus sanguinea, Prunus spinosa, Ligustrum vulgare, Rosa arvensis and R. canina agg., of which many are more typical of thermophilous oak woodland. Ilex aquifolium increases towards the Atlantic, Daphne laureola and Buxus sempervirens in the south-west while Hedera helix is the commonest liana overall with Lonicera alpigena and L. nigra in the Alps, Dinarides and Carpathians. The herb layer is here often species-rich with a predominance overall of shade-tolerant mesophytes, many of them shared with mixed broadleaved forests of the nemoral zone (G1Aa Carpinus & Quercus mesic deciduous woodland): Galium odoratum, Milium effusum, Mycelis muralis, Lamiastrum galeobdolon, Pulmonaria obscura, Scrophularia nodosa, Viola reichenbachiana, Poa nemoralis, Athyrium filix-femina and Dryopteris filix-mas. On more base-rich soils, Mercurialis perennis, Hordelymus europaeus, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromus benekenii, Euphorbia amygdaloides, Asarum europaeum, Lathyrus vernus, Sanicula europaea, Actaea spicata, Paris quadrifolia, Melica uniflora are frequent. Typical spring geophytes include Anemone nemorosa, A. ranunculoides, Allium ursinum, Corydalis cava, C. solida and Ranunculus ficaria with Hyacinthoides non-scripta in the Atlantic zone. In the more continental parts of central Europe, Carex digitata, C. umbrosa, Galium sylvaticum, Melica nutans, Campanula trachelium, Neottia nidus-avis and Vicia sepium are typical, while in montane stands, Polygonatum verticillatum, Senecio ovatus, Prenanthes purpurea and Stellaria nemorum are differential. At the upper altitudinal limit, Ranunculus platanifolius, Cicerbita alpina, Petasites albus, Athyrium distentifolium, Geranium sylvaticum, Senecio nemorensis and in the Alps and neighbouring mountains, Adenostyles alliariae, Veratrum album, Saxifraga rotundifolia, Viola biflora, Luzula luzulina, Astrantia major and Polystichum lonchitis. Thermophilous beech forests of this type, found in higher zonation belts in southern Europe or in locally warmer situations elsewhere, are especially species-rich and may have extensive thermophilous shrub layer, though the particular flora varies much according to the region and the altitude. Characteristic species include Cephalanthera damasonium, C. rubra, Carex montana, C. flacca, C. alba, Campanula persicifolia, C. rapunculoides, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria, Tanacetum corymbosum, Polygonatum odoratum, Sesleria albicans, Anthericum ramosum, Primula veris, Brachypodium pinnatum and Epipactis atrorubens. Regionally Dentaria species like Dentaria eneaphyllos (Karpathians to E-German mountains), Dentaria heptaphyllus (in beech forest on screes in the Swiss and French Jurassic mountain ranges) or Dentaria bulbifera can de abundant in the herb layer. In the northern Alps Aposeris foetica is a frequent species in the herb layer. In humid conditions species like Circaea lutetiana and Stachys sylvatica, or locally, also Crepis paludosa can be frequent. Characteristic species in the moss layer include Atrichum undulatum, Ctenidium molluscum, Rhytidiadelphus loreus and Eurhynchium striatum and many more expecially in the drier thermophilous beech forests and in humid conditions and mountain beech forests. In addition to the above distinctions, the more species-rich beech forests have often been differentiated into geographical groups (see geographical classification in Bohn et al. 2004), some of which are recognised in the Annex 1 habitats.
Indicators of quality:
• Natural composition of canopy with dominant beech trees
• Structural diversity/complexity with (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers
• Typical flora and fauna composition of the region
• Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying or standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi
• Presence of natural disturbance such as treefall openings with natural regeneration
• Long historical continuity (ancient woodland) with high species diversity
• Survival of larger stands of forest without anthropogenic fragmentation and isolation (to support fauna which needs large undisturbed forests)
• Absence of non-native species in all layers (flora & fauna)
• No signs of eutrophication or pollution
• No man-induced very high population levels of ungulates
Characterstic species:
Flora (Vascular plants):
Tree canopy: dominant: Fagus sylvatica ssp. sylvatica, Fagus sylvatica ssp. moesiaca, Fagus sylvatica spp. orientalis; additional tree species: Abies alba, Picea abies, Acer pseudoplatanus, Fraxinus excelsior, Sorbus aucuparia, Carpinus betulus, Quercus petraea, Quercus robur.
Understorey/Field layer: Galium odoratum, Oxalis acetosella, Mycelis muralis, Athyrium filix-femina, Hedera helix, Lamiastrum galeobdolon, Poa nemoralis, Mercurialis perennis, Anemone nemorosa, Euphorbia amygdaloides, Fragaria vesca and Milium effusum.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G1.6 Fagus woodland
EuroVegChecklist:
Scillo lilio-hyacinthi-Fagion Br.-Bl. 1967
Galio rotundifolii-Fagion Gamisans 1975
Seslerio-Fagion sylvaticae Passarge 1968
Geranio nodosi-Fagion Gentile ex Feoli et Lagonegro 1982
Geranio striati-Fagion Gentile 1970
Fagion moesiacae Blecic et Lakušic 1970
Symphyto cordati-Fagion (Vida 1963) Täuber 1982
Endymio non-scripti-Fagion Dierschke (1989) 1998
Fagion sylvaticae Luquet 1926
Lonicero alpigenae-Fagion (Borhidi ex Soó 1964) Dierschke 1997
Aremonio-Fagion Török et al. ex Marincek et al. 1993
Fagion orientalis Soó 1964.
Annex I:
9130 Asperulo-Fagetum beech forests
9140 Medio-European subalpine beech woods with Acer and Rumex arifolius
9150 Medio-European limestone beech forests of the Cephalanthero-Fagion
91K0 Illyrian Fagus sylvatica forests (Aremonio-Fagion)
91S0 Western Pontic beech forests
91V0 Dacian Beech forests (Symphyto-Fagion)
91X0 Dobrogean beech forests
9210 Appennine beech forests with Taxus and Ilex
9220 Appennine beech forests with Abies alba and beech forests with Abies nebrodensis
9270 Hellenic beech forests with Abies borisii-regis
9280 Quercus frainetto woods
Emerald:
G1.6 Fagus woodland
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest 
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest;
EFT:
6.1 Lowland beech forest of southern Scandinavia and north central Europe
6.2 Atlantic and subatlantic lowland beech forest
6.3 Subatlantic to Atlanto-Mediterranean submountainous beech forest
6.4 Central European submountainous beech forest
6.5 Carpathian submountainous beech forest
6.6 Illyrian submountainous beech forest
6.7 Moesian submountainous beech forest
7.1 South-western European mountainous beech forest
7.2 Central European mountainous beech forest
7.3 Apennine-Corsican mountainous beech forest
7.4 Illyrian mountainous beech forest
7.5 Carpathian mountainous beech forest
7.6 Moesian mountainous beech forest
7.7 Crimean beech forest
7.8 Oriental beech and hornbeam-oriental beech forest 
VME:
F5.2 Species-rich eutrophic and eu-mesotrophic beech and mixed beech forests

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Fagus sylvatica dominated beech forest both on acid and on non-acid soils have their worldwide centre of distribution in central Europe and some of the most outstanding examples have been chosen as part of the World Heritage site "Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians ID-Nr. 1133".

Map Description:
Map is rather complete. Data sources: Art17, EVA, Bohn.

Trends in Quantity:
The Average recent trend over the past 50 years is -10% (decrease for EU28), for EU28+ ca. -9% (but with less reliability because of bigger data gaps). Differences within Europe are substantial with usually slightly positive trends in middle Europe (e.g. France, Germany, Netherlands), however, some countries like Romania had a substantial decrease. The average current trend is still slightly decreasing, due to developments in Bulgaria, Romania and Spain, but the majority of countries in central and northern Europe have stable or slightly increasing trends. Future trends are difficult to assess, probably largely stable with some exceptions in the case of acidification (succession to acid beech forests) or in relatively dry situations losses due to global climate warming. Historic trend data are to a large extent missing, an average European value is therefore not given; where data are present they confirm a mixed situation with relatively large historical losses of up to 70 % in part of the area, and in situations where forest cover was already low in the 18th century even a positive historic trend.

Trends in Quality:
The calculated extent of degradation from territorial data is 29% (EU28; 27% for EU28+) with a severity of degradation of 39% (EU28 & EU28+), i.a. moderate. These trends have been calculated from >80% of the non-acid beech forest area. However a slight decline of quality (severity of 30%) is present over large areas (>70% extent) with a reduction in old trees (> 120 years) in the past 50 years (Vilén et al. 2012) ongoing losses in primary and ancient forests especially in SE-Europe (Knapp & Fichtner 2012, Griffiths et al. 2012) and EU red-listed saproxylic beetles linked to beech forests (Nieto & Alexander 2010, Lachat et al. 2012). With regard to the highest standard of the indicators of quality completely untouched (pristine) or old-growth ancient forests with sufficient dead and dying trees are only present on less than 1 % of the remaining European area. Current trends in quality are on average still decreasing, with a number of countries where it is stable or slightly increasing.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably more than 80 %; outside the EU28 beech forests mainly occur in Switzerland and in Balkan countries (Illyrian-Dinaric beech forests), as well as eastern pre-Carpathian, Carpathian and Moldavian beech forests (see map 12, unit F5.2 of Bohn et al. 2003).

Justification of Restricted Area:
The occurrence of the habitat type is neither restricted to small spots nor does it have a small total area.

Pressures and Threats:
Both in EU28 and EU28+ the most significant threats are forestry use (especially removal of dead and dying trees, planting of non-native or conifer trees, felling or logging, partially also removal of undergrowth), loss of area, fragmentation and impacts due to urbanization and infrastructure. Climate change pressures (both changes of abiotic conditions and biotic effects) are still low but tend to be more important or regionally important in future (drought risks, storm events etc.), a similar situation is true for air pollution impacts. Especially in the Mediterranean countries, grazing can be a major pressure and threat, in other regions high game densities can be an additional threat. In some countries, deforestation without replanting, and/or invasive species are an important issue.

Conservation and Management:
The majority of beech forests in the EU are under regular forestry management which reduces the development phases to about a third of the natural tree life with deficits in deadwood and all microhabitats associated with old trees. Apart from guaranteeing a regrowth (natural or by planting) of the beech forest after harvesting (no losses in area), a certain minimum of wilderness core zones combined with some allowance for dead or dying trees within used forests is a good way of combining nature conservation needs with forestry use. Forest fragmentation by urbanization and infrastructure needs adapted spatial planning, in regions with already a low forest cover, additional forest planting to reduce fragmentation in future. As full regeneration is very difficult ancient woodland and the small remnants of pristine woodland are of highest conservation interest, but establishing protected areas on small areas is not sufficient alone. Regionally management of invasive species might be necessary, or in the case of high pressure of grazing, areas with exclusion of grazing should be established, or game populations reduced and managed.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
9130: ALP U1, ATL U1, BOR U2, CON U1, MED FV, PAN FV
9140: ALP U1, CON XX, MED FV
9150: ALP U1, ATL U1, BLS U1, CON U1, MED U2, PAN FV
91K0: ALP U1, CON FV, PAN U1
91S0: BLS U1, CON U1
91V0: ALP FV, CON

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Both naturally and through intervention full recovery of the habitat usually needs time-spans over 200 years. While the tree species can be planted, already the characteristic species of the herb layer include many myrmecochorous species (seeds dispersed very slowly over small distances by ants). The full set of characteristic species includes many saproxylic invertebrates and fungi which need a historic habitat continuity, all of these need old and dead trees in a late development stage of forests, some of them even after 2-3 tree generations unable to recolonise new forest stands. Furthermore in situations where forests are isolated (especially in European densely populated lowlands) or where characteristic species are (on the verge of) extinction or extinct a full restoration is impossible even with active intervention. Therefore, pristine remnants and any ancient woodland need highest conservation priorities and connectivity needs to be developed especially in fragmented sites.

Summary:
This habitat comprises all those Fagus sylvatica woodlands on more base-rich and neutral soils, occurring from the Atlantic and Continental zones into the Alpine region of central Europe, the Carpathians, and the Balkans. In an often majestic canopy, or as a second tier, there are more associate trees here than on base-poor soils and, yielding often the best beech timber, this habitat can show a rich heritage of human interventions in the structure and composition of the tree component. The understorey is typically sparse and the field layer varies from mesophytic to calcicolous depending on the soil base staus and nutrient content, but there is often a striking contingent of spring geophytes. Significant pressures come from forestry, urbanization and infrastructure development, regionally also invasive species and grazing. Conservation depends on sensible sylviculture.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G., Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Raus, T., Schlüter, H. and Weber, H. 2004. Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.
Council of Europe. 2010. Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. and Hill, M.O. 2004. EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised. Report to the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.
European Commission DG Environment. 2007. Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency. 2006. European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No  9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Griffiths, P., Kuemmerle, T., Kennedy, R. E., Abrudan, I. V., Knorn, J. & Hostert, P. 2012. Using annual time-series of Landsat images to assess the effects of forest restitution in post-socialist Romania. Remote Sensing of Environment 118 (2012) 199–214.
Knapp, H.D. & Fichtner, A. (Eds.) 2012.  Beech Forests – Joint Nautral Heritage of Europe (2). BfN-Skripten 327: 1-222, Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn.
Lachata, T., Wermelingera, B., Gossnerb, B. M., Bussler, H., Isacssond, G. & Müller, J. 2012. Saproxylic beetles as indicator species for dead-wood amount and temperature in European beech forests. Ecological Indicators 23: 323–331.
Larsson, T.-B. (coord.) 2001. Biodiversity Evaluation Tools for European Forests. Ecological Bulletin 50: 237 pp.
Lenkungsgruppe der Länder Brandenburg, Hessen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern und Thüringen mit dem Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit und dem Bundesamt für Naturschutz. 2009. Anmeldung „Alte Buchenwälder Deutschlands“ als Erweiterung des Weltnaturerbes Buchenurwälder der Karpaten (Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians ID-Nr. 1133). Nationale Naturlandschaften, 186 S. (Download: https://www.bfn.de/0304_buchenwaelder-unesco-pdm.html). See also http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1133).
Nieto, A. & Alexander, K.N.A. 2010. European Red List of Saproxylic Beetles. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 46 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/conservation/species/downloads/European_saproxylic_beetles.pdf).
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. and Rodwell, J.S. 2013. Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005.  Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Suck, R., Bushart, M., unter Mitarbeit von Hofmann, G., Schröder, L. and Bohn, U. 2010. Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands : Maßstab 1 : 500.000, Münster : BfN-Schriftenvertrieb im Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2010. - Kartenteil: 7 Karten; Legende: 24 S.
Suck, R., Bushart, M., Hofmann, G. and Schröder, L. 2013. Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands: 2. Band: Kartierungseinheiten; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F + E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400. BfN-Skripten 349: 1-305.
Suck, R., Bushart, M., Hofmann, G., Schröder, L., unter Mitarbeit von Bohn, U., Jenssen, M. and Bushart, M. 2014. Karte der potentiellen natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands: 3. Band: Erläuterungen, Auswertungen, Anwendungsmöglichkeiten, Vegetationstabellen ; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F+E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400. BfN-Skripten 377: 1-317.
Suck, R., Bushart, M., Hofmann, G. and Schröder, L. 2014. Karte der Potentiellen Natürlichen Vegetation Deutschlands : 1. Band: Grundeinheiten; unter Verwendung von Ergebnissen aus dem F+E-Vorhaben FKZ 3508 82 0400. BfN-Skripten 348: 1-449.
Vilén, T., Gunia, K., Verkerk, P.J., Seidl, R., Schelhaas, M.-J., Lindner, M. & Bellassen, V. 2012. Reconstructed forest age structure in Europe 1950–2010. Forest Ecology and Management 2012: 286: 203 (DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2012.08.048, see also note on science daily: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121213084931.htm)

Criterion A Text:
During the past 40-60 years, there was an average decrease of -10.4% (EUR28) and -9.2% (EUR28+), respectively, with a large variation within Europe. Information on historical losses is very limited and therefore not useful for assessments. Major historical losses occurred to a large part already before 1750 and therefore, an application of criterion A3 would not be sufficiently reflecting the situation.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity of degradation was based on weighted average, calculated from ca. 90% of the total area, where all necessary data were present in territorial data sheets. The calculated extent affected seems to take into account mainly moderate severity and has been applied differently by territorial experts. This information was therefore supplemented by expert assessment based on published evidence. A slight decline of quality (severity of 30%) is present over large areas (>70% extent) with a reduction in old trees (> 120 years) in the past 50 years (Vilén et al. 2012) ongoing losses in primary and ancient forests especially in SE-Europe (Knapp & Fichtner 2012, Griffiths et al. 2012) and EU red-listed saproxylic beetles linked to beech forests (Nieto & Alexander 2010, Lachat et al. 2012). This reduction in quality over a large percentage of the area leads to the conclusion Near Threatened (NT). Information on long historical or future trends is incomplete and could not be used for criteria CD2, CD3. Reduction in quality usually affected both abiotic and biotic changes and therefore, criteria C and D were not split.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type (Different climate change scenarios exist, but results are varying and usually only predict shifts in the distribution in some parts of the whole range. Predictions on changes of the whole habitat type with its species composition are not existing).

Synthesis:
The habitat showed a moderate qualitative decrease over almost one-third of its area and a slight decrease in quality over larger areas (>70%, criterion C/D1) with continuing pressures and threats being present, an therefore qualifies as Near Threatened. Because of large EOO and AOO, and with only a slight quantitative decrease all other criteria are assessed Least Concern as well. The assessment of historic trends was not possible due to data deficiencies.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
While at least some good examples of non-acid mountain beech forests still persist, the situation in lowland neutral to base-rich beech forests is much more fragmented. Several of its subtypes (e.g. Annex I types) have been affected by a slight to mode

Contributors:
Habitat definition: John Rodwell, with additions of A. Ssymank & M. Chytry.
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, Z. Barina, E. Bendiksen, R.-J. Bijlsma, C. Bita-Nicolae,  J. Bölöni, T.E. Brandrud, G. Buffa, J. A. Campos, L. Casella, R. ÄŒarni/Juvan, M.  Chytrý , P. Finck, L. De Keersmaeker, R. Delarze, M. Dimitrov, P. Dimopoulos, C. Giancola, G. Giusso Del Galdo, D. Gigante, Z. KÄ…cki, K. J.  Kirby, C. Marcenò, V. Matevski,  F. Millaku, F. O'Neill, B. Nygaard, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, B. Renaux, U. Riecken, J. Rodwell, S. Sciandrello, Škvorc, D. SteševiÄ‡, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, A. Thomaes, M.ValachoviÄ, K. Vanderkerkhove, N. Velkovski , D. Viciani, L. Wibail, W. Willner.
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
This habitat consists of minerotrophic main mire surfaces of the central parts of Aapa mire complexes in boreal Fennoscandia. Aapa mires include both topogenous and soligenous types with varying degrees of slope. The peat layer is usually relatively thin (< 2 m) and mainly composed of Carex peat and to lesser extent by remains of Sphagnum and other mosses. The peat is highly water saturated and water table is located very close to peat surface or above it leaving little space for aerobic rhizosphere. Peat and pore water are usually moderately to slightly acidic (with a pHof  4.5 to 5.5). Typically there is a regular pattern of alteration of variably wide wet flarks (wet hollows) or pools and narrow hummock strings that relate to topography, hydrology, peat formation and ice dynamics. Hummock string patterning is oriented perpendicular to slope and water flow. The strings act as dams to store water in the flarks. The string-flark pattern is dense on steep slopes, while nearly non-patterned aapa mires occur in flat terrains. Trees (Pinus sylvestris, Betula pubescens) are absent or sparsely found on hummock strings and are more abundant only near mire margins. Sphagnum and Amblysegiaceae mosses dominate the ground layer of vegetation, while hepatics growing on muddy peat and open water surfaces are common in the flarks. Aapa mires include subtypes ranging widely from nearly ombrotrophic poor fen vegetation to rich fen vegetation. However, aapa mires with true rich fen vegetation are assessed as part of D4.1c Calcareous quaking mires.
Wet flarks of aapa mires are characterized by abundance of sedges such as Carex limosa, Carex rostrata, Carex chordorrhiza, Eriophorum angustifolium and herbs such as Equisetum fluviatile, Menyanthes trifoliata and Potentilla palustris. Among typical carnivorous plants, Drosera longifolia and Utricularia intermedia are common in aapa mire flarks. Characteristic mosses include Warnstorfia fluitans, Warnstorfia exannulata and Warnstorfia procera, while quaking carpets of Sphagnum majus, Sphagnum papillosum and Sphagnum pulchrum are also common especially in southern range of aapa mires. The hummock strings are typically dominated by Sphagnum and sedges. Characteristic species are Sphagnum angustifolium, Sphagnum fallax, Sphagnum flexuosum, Sphagnum magellanicum and Sphagnum papillosum among mosses and Carex lasiocarpa and Eriophorum vaginatum are the commonest sedges. The degree of minerotrophic influence strongly affects species composition and diversity of vegetation. With increasing minerotrophic influence (pH 5-6) typical species of wet flarks may include Sphagnum platyphyllum, Utricularia minor and Carex livida. In hummock strings, Sphagnum subfulvum, Sphagnum subsecundum, Sphagnum teres, Sphagnum warnstorfii, Carex dioica, Molinia caerulea, Trichophorum alpinum, Selaginella selaginoides  and Tofieldia pusilla are typical indicators of higher minerotrophic level. Sometimes strings have high hummocks with Sphagnum fuscum hummock vegetation, most typically in marginal areas and are often characterized by abundance of Betula nana.
Indicators of good quality:
Under natural conditions, the water table is very close to peat surface in wet areas (flarks) between hummock strings, often forming open water surfaces.
There are no ditches that drain or disconnect water flow (seepage or overland flow) in the aapa mire complex.
Water quality reflects minerotrophy with moderately acidic pH values (4.5-6.5).
Minerotrophic sedges and bryophytes are abundant.
Trees are found only scatteredly in hummock strings and margins.

Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Agrostis canina, Andromeda polifolia, Betula nana, Calamagrostis stricta, Carex aquatilis, Carex buxbaumii, Carex chordorrhiza, Carex diandra, Carex dioica, Carex heleonastes, Carex lasiocarpa, Carex limosa, Carex livida, Carex magellanica ssp. irrigua, Carex nigra ssp. nigra, Carex rostrata, Carex rotundata, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Dactylorhiza incarnata ssp. incarnata, Dactylorhiza maculata, Drosera rotundifolia, Drosera longifolia, Empetrum nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum, Epilobium palustre, Eriophorum angustifolium, Eriophorum gracile, Eriophorum russeolum, Eriophorum vaginatum, Equisetum fluviatile, Huperzia selago, Juncus stygius, Menyanthes trifoliata, Molinia caerulea, Parnassia palustris, Pedicularis palustris, Pinguicula villosa, Potentilla palustris, Rubus chamaemorus, Salix lapponum, Salix myrtilloides, Scheuchzeria palustris, Selaginella selaginoides, Solidago virgaurea, Stellaria palustris, Tofieldia pusilla, Trichophorum alpinum, Trichophorum cespitosum, Utricularia intermedia, Utricularia minor, Utricularia vulgaris, Vaccinium oxycoccos
Mosses: Barbilophozia kuntzeana, Calliergon richardsonii, Cinclidium subrotundum, Cladopodiella fluitans, Gymnocolea inflata, Hamatocaulis vernicosus, Loeskypnum badium, Scorpidium revolvens, Sphagnum angustifolium, Sphagnum annulatum, Sphagnum compactum, Sphagnum fallax, Sphagnum flexuosum, Sphagnum jensenii, Sphagnum lindbergii, Sphagnum magellanicum, Sphagnum majus, Sphagnum papillosum, Sphagnum platyphyllum, Sphagnum pulchrum, Sphagnum riparium, Sphagnum subfulvum, Sphagnum subsecundum, Sphagnum warnstorfii, Straminergon stramineum, Warnstorfia fluitans, Warnstorfia exannulata, Warnstorfia procera, Warnstorfia sarmentosa
Fauna
Birds: Anser fabalis,  Anthus pratensis, Asio flammeus, Circus cyaneus, Cygnus cygnus, Emberiza schoeniculus, Falco columbarius, Falco subbuteo, Gallinago gallinago, Grus grus, Lagopus lagopus, Lanius excubitor, Limicola falcinellus, Lymnocryptes minimus, Motacilla flava, Numenius arquata, Numenius phaeopus, Phalaropus lobatus, Philomachus pugnax, Pluvialis apricaria, Tringa erythropus, Tringa nebularia, Tringa glareola
Insects: Boloria freija, Boloria frigga

Classification:
EUNIS:
D3.2 Aapa mires
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Mosaic of different alliances
Annex 1:
7310 Aapa mires
Emerald:
D3.2 Aapa mires
MAES-2:
Wetlands
IUCN:
5.4. Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands
National classifications:
Strängflarkkärr, Strängblandmyr (Sweden)

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Aapa mires have their main distribution in the north-boreal zone with high climatic moisture surplus and rich snow cover. In the south-boreal zone, aapa mires are found occasionally in places where extra moisture is provided by large catchment area.

Map Description:
The habitat is confined to north-boreal climates and hence occurs only in northern Sweden, Norway and Finland. Some patterned fens in Scotland and in Central European mountain areas resemble the habitat description of aapa mires, but are not included here as its presence in these countries needs to be confirmed. The map is complete for the EU28plus. Data sources: Art17, BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
Aapa mire habitats have experienced only limited historical area decline as a result of their clearance for fields in their southern distribution range. Recent past trends are more remarkable, and the most significant factor that has affected the habitat type is the drainage for forestry purposes in Finland. In addition, also peat mining has lead to area loss of aapa mires. Recent area decline is estimated to be 10-20%. Some future area decline is expected if peat extraction continues in Finland.

Trends in Quality:
The historic trend for aapa mire quality is stable. A recent decreasing quality trend is the result of hydrological changes (ditching, water extraction) of mire catchment areas that reduce groundwater availability for aapa mires. In the future, climate warming and declining water surplus are expected to further degrade the habitat quality of aapa mires. Hydrological changes typically trigger vegetation changes, including increased tree encroachment and increase of bog vegetation.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
10-15% of the global Aapa mire distribution lies within the EU 28, as this habitat habitats areis abundant in certain areas in Canada and Russia.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The area decline in aapa mires has not been very dramatic.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat type is widespread in the north-boreal zone.

Pressures and Threats:
Drainage for forestry purposes, peat extraction, building water reservoirs and in the past also clearing of agricultural land have destroyed parts of the habitat distribution. habitat occurrences. The Ssttructure and function of this habitat have deteriorated mainly because of hydorological changes caused by ditching and other land use in the surroundings of the site and in the catchment area. Pressures of lower importance include also vvarious construction activities, e.g.such as the building of roads, water engineering, water abstractions from ground water and mining activities. In addition, climate warming is also expected to amplify hydrological changes through droughts and less precipitations and water changes, which could lead to . Following hydrological changes, natural acidification and succession from fen to bog vegetation can be expected in the future.

Conservation and Management:
Aapa mires are well represented in protectedconservation areas in northern Finland and Sweden. Restoration of drained aapa mires has been conducted in many Finnish conservation areas. Destructive use mainly for peat extraction leading to destruction of the habitat is being increasingly restricted to directed to disturbed sites only. However, many valuable sites are still not protected and would require conservation investments, for conservation especially in their southern distribution range of aapa mires. Restoration of the hydrological conditionsnections of aapa mire habitats to their groundwater supplying catchment areas would be neededare required  in many cases to prevent further decline of the quality of the habitat.

Conservation Status:
D 3.2 Aapa mires are included in Annex 7310 Aapa mires and have a favorable conservation status (FV) in their northern range, while both Finland and Sweden report inadequate (U1) status in the boreal zone. Sweden and Finland report a total of 32400 km<

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Severe damage to aapa mires due to peat extraction can be irreversible. When the hydrology of Severely damaged aapa mires has been strongly altered,  in terms of strongly altered hydrology the habitat can be restoredated and it has have the capacity to redevelop characteristic features within few decades. Active intervention by implementing hydrological restoration measures of hydrological restoration (such as blocking of ditches and, damming) is needed. Ditches can also be filled with moss biomass and detritus naturally, but in such cases the recovery of characteristic features is slow, because this habitat type is dependent on very high water level and threshold of runoff.

Summary:
Aapa mire develops on relatively thin saturated peat through the northern boreal region, mainly in the EU28 in more remote parts of Finland and Sweden. It comprises both topogenous and soligenous types depending on topography, hydrology, peat accumulation and ice dynamics and typically has a regular pattern of alternating hummock strings and flarks (wet depressions) oriented according to slope and water flow.  Sphagna and other bryophytes dominate the ground carpet and they and associated sedges and other vascular plants vary with the degree of minerotrophic influence. Trees are absent or sparse on hummock strings and mire margins. Aapa mires are affected by drainage in the surrounding areas that may disrupt hydrological connections to their catchment and climate change may also affect hydrology triggering succession towards bog vegetation. Restoration of natural hydrology is needed to prevent further decline in extent and quality of the habitat.

References:
European Environment Agency. Habitats Directive Article 17 Reporting. 7310 Aapa mires.
Gunnarsson, U & Löfroth, M 2009. Våtmarksinventeringen – resultat från 25 års inventeringar. Nationell slutrapport  för våtmarksinventeringen (VMI) i Sverige. NATURVÅRDSVERKET Rapport 5925.
Jeglum, J, Sandring, S, Christensen, P, Glimskär, A, Allard, A, Nilsson, L & Svensson, J 2014. Main ecosystem characteristics and distribution of wetlands in boreal and alpine landscapes in the northern Sweden under climate change. In Grillo, O & Venora, G (eds.) Ecosystem Biodiversity, Intech, pp. 193-218.

Criterion A Text:
A decline of 15% of the habitat type in EU28 and of 17% in EU28+ has occurred over the past 50 years, and thus the habitat is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion A. In Finland, there has been an area decline of between 10-20%, as calculated by the Finnish National forest inventory (Valtakunnan metsien inventointi, VMI) from decline of "Flark fens", which also includes D2.3a Quaking mires. The types "Strängflarkkärr" and "Strängblandmyr"in Swedish wetlands inventory (Våtmarks inventering, VMI) are interpreted as D3.2 Aapa mires and the fact that their recent trends of quality decline (påverkansgrad) are clearly smaller than most other mire types indicates also a relatively small area effect. There is no information available on the future and historic trends of this habitat type.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO and AOO values exceed the thresholds for a threatened category as this habitat is very widespread and thus the habitat type is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B. However, a continuing decline is caused by peat extraction and there are ongoing threatening processes to his haibtat type as a result of hydrological changes due to climate change and catchment drainage.

Criterion C/D Text:
Finland reported slight severity decline affecting 10-20% area, although this may be an underestimate since hydrological change impacts and climate change effects can be difficult to detect. In Sweden, ca. 40% of "Strängflarkkärr" and "Strängblandmyr" are reported to have mainly weak local effects (in Våtmarksinventering). A combination of these data results into an extent of 33% with relative severity of 30% of the area of this habitat type. The main factor of degradation affecting the habitat type is the disturbance to hydrology, which is linked to vegetation changes. Thus, the habitat type is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion C/D1, as both abiotic and biotic factors are considered. As no quality data was available for Norway, but there is no reason to expect more critical trends than in other countries, the EU28+ is the same assessment as the EU28 one. There is no information on the historic and future decline in quality of this habitat type.

Criterion E Text:
Individual case studies indicate rapid changes in aapa mires (Tahvanainen 2011, Tahvanainen et al. 2016) but there is not sufficient data to apply Criterion E.

Synthesis:
The habitat type is assessed as Least Concern (LC) in view of its fairly wide distribution and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for a threatened category. However, there is uncertainty on the available information and once more quantitative data is available the assessment may change. Aapa mires are particularly sensitive to hydrological disturbances and it is possible that an ongoing decline in quality due to climate change and catchment disturbances is not recognized.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Aapa mires contain climatic-zonal subtypes whose susceptibility to hydrological changes and climate warming may differ. Northern-boreal to subarctic aapa mires most often have open water pools that are important habitats to aquatic fauna, and the dryin

Contributors:
Habitat description: T. Tahvanainen
Territorial data: T. Kontula, A. Lyngstad, A. Moen, D.-I. Øien, T. Tahvanainen
Working Group Mires & bogs: C. Bita-Nicolae, M. Hájek, F. Jansen, T. Tahvanainen


Habitat Type Name:
E1.1b Cryptogam- and annual-dominated vegetation on siliceous rock outcrops

Habitat Description:
These open pioneer grasslands occur on shallow soils (Leptosols) at rock outcrops, on eroded slopes, or in disturbed patches within dry or mesic grasslands. Stands are usually of limited extent, in many cases occupying just a few square metres. This vegetation is dominated by vernal therophytes of the genera Cerastium, Myosotis, Veronica and others and succulent plants of the genera Sedum or Sempervivum (inclusive Jovibarba). Hemicryptophytes are also common, especially the narrow-leaved tussock-forming species of Festuca and several xerophilous Poa species, but they are not the dominant component of this vegetation, except for some short-growing species such as Scleranthus perennis. Geophytes such as Gagea sp. pl. also occur in places. The richness of therophytes and geophytes increases when moving from northern and western to southeastern Europe. Bryophytes and lichens are also common and they can attain a very high cover in some places. Mosses are represented for example by Ceratodon purpureus, Polytrichum piliferum and Syntrichia ruralis agg., lichens by Cetraria aculeata, Cladonia sp. pl. and Xanthoparmelia sp. pl.
Shallow soils supporting this vegetation are well drained and dry out quickly, especially during summer periods of warm weather. Therefore vegetation has its phenological optimum in spring when moisture is still available due to lower evaporation rates. Most therophytes complete their life cycle within a short period of a few weeks prior to the peak of the seasonal development of hemicryptophytes, which helps them avoid competition for light. In contrast, most succulents are perennial and adapted to enduring summer drought period. However, they are more sensitive to disturbance, therefore more disturbed sites tend to contain more therophytes and less disturbed sites more succulents.
This vegetation is distributed throughout temperate and boreal Europe, but it is rarely found in extensive stands. It occurs across a broad altitudinal range from the lowlands to the subalpine belt. The type corresponds to the phytosociological order Sedo-Scleranthetalia, including the Sedo-Poetalia glaucae, which is by some authors separated as an order that occurs from the middle boreal to the arctic zone. Phytosociological literature distinguishes several alliances confined to different European regions, which are geographical vicariants with distinct species composition. A specific subtype of this habitat is found in the supratemperate, very humid belt of Madeira (over 1400 m a.s.l.), where Thymus micans dominates open pioneer communities on shallow soils and rocks, derived from hard volcanic substrate. Another specific subtype occurs on and around acidic outcrops in middle and northern Fennoscandia and Iceland (the Veronico-Poion glaucae).
Indicators of good quality:
These grasslands are confined to stressed or disturbed sites. Due to their small spatial extent, individual stands can be entirely destroyed, but they can regenerate if suitable conditions return. Sites on the rock outcrops near lookout points can be negatively affected through frequent trampling by tourists. On the other hand, disturbance-dependent stands occurring in patches among closed grasslands may become overgrown by tall perennial species if disturbance (e.g. grazing) ceases. Therophytes typical of this vegetation can also occur in human-made habitats such as roadsides, railway banks or quarries, where they form communities with ruderal and nutrient demanding species; such sites are not included in this habitat type and are of lower conservation interest.
The following characteristics can be considered as indicators of good quality:
·      Long-term habitat stability
·      High species richness of therophytes and succulents
·      Occurrence of rare species
·      Dependence on naturally stressful conditions or natural disturbance rather than human-induced disturbance
·      Absence of tall, nutrient-demanding and ruderal species
Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Aira caryophyllea, Aira praecox, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Anthyllis vulneraria, Arabidopsis thaliana, Arenaria serpyllifolia agg., Campanula rotundifolia, Cardaminopsis petraea, Cerastium glutinosum, Deschampsia flexuosa, Dianthus deltoides, Dianthus pinifolius, Draba daurica, Echium vulgare, Erigeron politus, Erophila verna, Erysimum hieracifolium, Festuca nigrescens subsp. microphylla, Festuca ovina, Gagea bohemica, Galeopsis bifida, Galium normanii, Hieracium alpinum agg., Hieracium pilosella, Hypericum perforatum, Jasione heldreichii, Jasione montana, Lappula deflexa, Lotus corniculatus, Lychnis alpina, Micropyrum tenellum, Minuartia greuteriana, Myosotis ramosissima, Myosotis stricta, Poa alpina, Poa bulbosa, Poa glauca, Poa nemoralis, Poa perconcinna, Poa xerophila, Potentilla argentea agg., Potentilla crantzii, Potentilla nivea, Potentilla tabernaemontani, Roegneria borealis, Rumex acetosella, Saxifraga adscendens, Saxifraga oppositifolia, Scleranthus annuus agg., Scleranthus perennis, Sedum acre, Sedum album, Sedum anglicum, Sedum annuum, Sedum brevifolium, Sedum pyrenaicum, Sedum rupestre, Sedum sexangulare, Sempervivum arachnoideum, Sempervivum montanum, Silene rupestris, Silene uniflora subsp. uniflora, Solidago virgaurea, Thymus micans, Trifolium arvense, Veronica dillenii, Veronica fruticans, Veronica verna
Bryophytes: Ceratodon purpureus, Dicranum sp. pl., Hypnum cupressiforme, Pleurozium schreberi, Pohlia nutans, Polytrichum juniperinum, Polytrichum piliferum, Racomitrium canescens agg., Syntrichia ruralis agg.
Lichens: Alectoria sp. pl., Cetraria aculeata, Cladonia arbuscula agg., Cladonia foliacea, Cladonia furcata, Cladonia pyxidata, Nephroma sp. pl., Peltigera rufescens, Thamnolia vermicularis, Xanthoparmelia conspersa.
Fauna
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Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.1 Pioneer and open perennial grasslands of inland sands and rocky terrain
EuroVegChecklist (alliances)
·      Hyperico perforati-Scleranthion perennis Moravec 1967 p.p. (in the delimitation of some authors, the most open types only)
·      Veronico-Poion glaucae Nordhagen 1943
·      Sedo-Scleranthion Br.-Bl. 1950
·      Sedion anglici Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. & Tx. 1952
·      Sedion pyrenaici Tx. in Rivas-Mart. &al. 2011
·      Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii Korneck 1974
·      Scabioso-Trifolion dalmatici Horvatic et N. Randelovic in N. Randelovic 1977
·      Thymion micantis J.C. Costa et al. 2005
Annex 1:
8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer vegetation of the Sedo-Scleranthion or of the Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii
Emerald:
E1.11 Euro-Siberian rock debris swards
MAES-2:
Grassland
IUCN:
4.4. Temperate grassland

Map Description:
The maps is incomplete for the Carpathians and Balkan, while potential distribution is given for Norway and Iceland. Data sources: Art17, EVA, BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
The recent trend in quantity is declining both for EU28 (-37%) and  EU28+ (-37%), based on 80% of the total area reported. The long-term trend is even more pronouncedly declining, both in EU28 (-51%) and EU28+ (-51%), based on 60% of the total area reported. For the future, the data-providing countries assume developments that range from strong (rarely) through minor decrease to stability (mostly).

Trends in Quality:
Within EU28, 19% of the remaining area are degraded with 37% severity. Within EU28+, 20% of the remaining area are degraded with 40% severity.

Pressures and Threats:
As far as the territory of this habitat has been enlarged by clearing of forests and grazing, it suffers from natural succession following abandonment of such traditional pasture systems. To a smaller extent also eutrophication through atmogenic nitrogen input, direct destruction in case of quarries, urbanisation and road construction can have negative impacts. Specifically for Switzerland the extension of viticulture and negative effects of pesticides from adjacent agriculture are mentioned, but these threats might be more widespread across countries.

Conservation and Management:
Generally, continuation of low-intensity grazing is the recommended measure. However, the majority of stands is rather stable also without management.

Conservation Status:
8230 ALP U1, ATL XX, BLS U1, BOR U2, CON U1, MAC XX, MED XX, PAN U1, STE FV

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Degraded semi-natural (e.g. in former pasture systems) and anthropogenic stands (e.g. wall tops; railway gravel) can be restored by re-installing the former grazing system and/or cutting down woody encroachment inside the habitat (and in its surrounding, if it throws shadow on the site).
Natural and and semi-natural sites that have been degraded by quarrying or leisure activities can recover themselves when the negative impact has stopped, but this will take considerable time.

Summary:
These open pioneer grasslands are dominated by perennial succulents and annuals, with subordinate small tussock grasses, sometimes geophytes and often with a prominent contingent of cryptogams. They are typical of very shallow and skeletal, impoverished, acid soils on siliceous rock outcrops, eroded slopes and equivalent disturbed or artificial habitats like soil heaps and wall tops.  They occur throughout temperate and boreal Europe, across the lowlands and up to the sub-alpine level, in situations where the permeable soils dry quickly in summer, but where spring rains can permit a quick flush of growth by the annuals. Natural stands are dependent upon environmental stress rather than grazing, so the vegetation can remain stable without intervention but where in semi-natural situations, intervention may be needed to prevent sward closure and encroachment by shrubs and trees. Though still widespread, there have been substantial losses in extent and quality and stands are often small and vulnerable.

References:
Bergmeier, E., Konstantinou, M., Tsiripidis, I. and Sýkora, K. V. 2009. Plant communities on metalliferous soils in northern Greece. Phytocoenologia 39: 411–438.
Braun-Blanquet, J. 1955. Das Sedo-Scleranthion – neu für die Westalpen. Österr. Bot. Z. 102: 476–485.
Braun-Blanquet, J. and Tüxen, R. 1952. Irische Pflanzengesellschaften. Veröff. Geobot. Inst. Rübel Zür. 25: 224–420.
de Foucalt, B. 1999. Nouvelle contribution à une synsystématique des pelouses sèches à thérophytes. Documents Phytosociologiques, N.S. 19: 47−105.
Dengler, J. 2003. Entwicklung und Bewertung neuer Ansätze in der Pflanzensoziologie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Vegetationsklassifikation. Archiv naturwissenschaftlicher Dissertationen 14: 1–297.
Korneck, D. 1975. Beitrag zur Kenntnis mitteleuropäischer Felsgrus-Gesellschaften (Sedo-Scleranthetalia). – Mitteilungen der Floristisch-Soziologischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft N.F. 18: 45–102.
Moravec, J. 1967. Zu den azidophilen Trockenrasengesellschaften Südwestböhmens und Bemerkungen zur Syntaxonomie der Klasse Sedo-Scleranthetea. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 2: 137–178.
Nordhagen, R. 1943. Sikilsdalen og Norges fjellbeiter. En plantesosiologisk monografi. Bergens Museums Skrifter 22: 1–607.

Criterion A Text:
The values for Criteria A1 and A3 are calculated from the territorial data sheets, which provided trend data for 16 and 8 countries, for the 50 yr and long-term trend, respectively. However, the long-term trends are based on only about 2/5 of the territory. The provided data were far too incomplete to allow assessment based on Criteria A2a and A2b.

Criterion B Text:
EOO and AOO are far larger than the thresholds for the criteria B1 and B2. The habitat type has many occurrences in nearly all European countries.

Criterion C/D Text:
The data for C/D1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets, which provided assessments for 19 countries. No data were available for C/D2 and C/D3. The degradation quality refers to both biotic features and abiotic circumstances.

Synthesis:
Based on both the short-term reduction in quantity of 37% and the long-term reduction of 51%, the habitat is assessed as vulnerable (VU) in both EU28 and EU28+.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Boreal examples may belong to a different phytosociological order and in that case may have to be distinguished as a seperate habitat.

Contributors:
Type description: M. Chytrý (revised by J. Dengler)
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, R. Delarze, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, C. Gussev, A. Jacobson, M. Janišová, R.G. Jefferson, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, T. Kontula, A. Mikolajczak, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, F. Millaku, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
B1.7c Baltic coniferous coastal dune woodland

Habitat Description:
Dune woods develop naturally where coastal sands become sufficiently stabilised and remote from the influence of saline ground water or spray to sustain a permanent cover of trees and they bear a strong resemblance to the zonal woodland types of the regional climate. On the Baltic coast of Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Poland, Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia, where the climate is Boreal to the north and east, Continental to the south-west, dune woods persist locally, though often reduced in quality now by replanting with introduced conifers. Pinus sylvestris is the natural coloniser and dominant and the overall character is similar to G3.4/5a Temperate Continental Pinus sylvestris woodland.
Associated trees and shrubs include Quercus robur to the south, with Betula pendula, Juniperus communis. Often there is a heathy field layer with Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Calluna vulgaris, Empetrum nigrum, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Deschampsia flexuosa and such distinctive boreal plants as Moneses uniflora, Linnaea borealis, Chimaphia umbellata and Pyrola rotundifolia. More locally, on calcareous sands, the flora can be basiphilous and, in more open stands, have a distinctively grassy look with Festuca ovina, Hieracium pilosella, Peucedanum oreoselinum, Phleum phleoides, Thymus serpylllum. On more recently colonised sands, dune species such as Ammophila arenaria, Leymus arenarius and Carex arenaria can persist among the trees. In Poland a variety of the habitat is found in wet depressions, with Ledum palustre dominating the field layer.
Indicators of quality:
Presence of mature canopy of Pinus sylvestris with associated woody and herb species.
Absence of planted Pinus sylvestris or other commercial conifers with loss of associated native flora.
Infrequent burial of trees by storm-blown sands and forest fires.
Absence of logging.
Absence of human disturbance due to tourism or military activity.

Characteristic species:
Tree canopy: Betula pendula, Quercus robur, Pinus sylvestris
Field layer: Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Calluna vulgaris, Deschampsia flexuosa, Empetrum nigrum, Juniperus communis, Linnaea borealis, Melampyrum pratense, Moneses uniflora, Peucedanum oreoselinum, Chimaphila umbellata, Pyrola rontundifolia, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea
Mosses: Leucobryum glaucum
Lichens: Cladina subgen. Cladina, Cetratia islandica, Stereocaulon sp.

Classification:
Annex 1:
2180 Wooded dunes of the Atlantic, Continental and Boreal region
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Dicrano-Pinion (Libbert 1933) W. Matuszkiewicz 1962
Festuco-Pinion Passarge1968
Emerald:
B1.7 Coastal dune woods
MAES:
Coastal
IUCN:
1.1 Boreal Forest

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The Baltic coniferous dune woods ara a very typical phenomenon along the coasts of the Baltic, in areas with dunes.

Map Description:
Map rather complete, with some gaps for Russia. Data: Art17.

Trends in Quantity:
Trends in quantity differ between countries, but the overall trend is today decreasing with about 15%, an expected future decrease of about 5% and an historical increase with about 6%.

Trends in Quality:
The quality is in most areas declining because of lack of fires, expansion of invasive species and wrong management.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Close to 100% of the area is found in the EU28, just a small part occurs outside, in Kaliningrad.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has not a very limited area in the sites where it is found.

Pressures and Threats:
Trough history there have been many different activites going on in this habitat, from use of the timber to stabilising dunes by planting both native and non-native species. There are very few areas where the habitat has been undisturbed in the last 100 years, and in these areas the lack of fire has changed the species compostition from a more natural situation.

Conservation and Management:
Many of the sites with the habitat need some management, but it is very different in different areas. It varies from removal of invasive species or planted non-native trees to activate forest fires. In some areas the highest conservation need is legal protection.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
To restore coniferous costal dune woods takes long time as the forest is extremely slow growing. If the forest is clearcut it will take several hundred years to come back to what it was, and there is no known way to fasten this process. The natural regeneration is by fire and those cycles also take long time periods.

Summary:
Baltic coniferous coastal dune woods occur locally along the coast of the Baltic sea where dune sands have become stabilised and removed from the influence of salty winds. Their overall character is indistinguishable from similar woodland inland, the main colonisers being Pinus sylvestris with Picea abies to more boreal the north, often with some broad-leaved trees, and sub-shrubs of heaths/  The habitat has been much manipulated in recent times, by ways of landuse, for need of timber and for stabilisation of dunes. Over a longer historical period it has increased its area, but the actual trend is a decline with afforestation and coastal development.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. (2004) Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz. Council of Europe (2010), Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. (2004), EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised. Report to the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.
European Commission DG Environment (2007), Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency (2006), European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No 9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell, J.S. (2013), Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.

Criterion A Text:
The trend in the last 50 years is a decrease with about 15%, but the historical trend is an increase. For the future a decrease is expected, but less than the recent change.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat doesn't meet the EOO or AOO thresholds, nor does it occur in relatively few locations. Therefore it is assessed Least Concern under the B criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
The quality of the habitat is strongly affected to a large extent, based on data from xxx countries. With better data the situation is probably even worse. The figures lead to the conclusion Vulnerable.

Criterion E Text:
No quantitative analysis has been carried out on the risk for collapse of this habitat.

Synthesis:
The Baltic coniferous costal dune woods are assessed as Vulnerable (VU) due to the large negative trend in quality over the last 50 years (criterion C/D1). More than half of the area has degraded to a rather high degree.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No sub-habitat is known that needs further investigation.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Rodwell
Territorial data: P. Finck, A. Jacobson, Z. KÄ…cki, T. Kontula, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, I. Rove, I. Sell, A. Ssymank
Working Group Coastal: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, H. Gardfjell, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, R. Tzonev


