# European Red List of Habitats Table

Habitat Type Name:
A1.44: Mediterranean mediolittoral caves and overhangs

Habitat Description:
Mediolittoral caves and overhangs are a special habitat whose main distinctive trait is the low irradiance. The habitat can be found on most rocky shores regardless of wave exposure. The shaded nature of caves and overhangs diminishes the amount of desiccation suffered by biota during periods of low tides which allows certain species to proliferate.
Algal growth is restricted to a very few species that can withstand low light levels, low to high hydrodynamism, and extended periods of desiccation. Canopy-forming macroalgae are absent whilst encrusting rhodophytes are dominant. Some variation in the species composition of the individual caves must be expected depending on local conditions although in general the communities are very poor in species. At the entrance to mediolittoral caves where there is sufficient light red algae may be present, particularly an association of nonâ€calcified encrusting red algae Hildenbrandia rubra and Phymatholithon lenormandii, under the red alga Lithophyllum byssoides.
In general, the biomass and diversity of algal species found in upper and midâ€shore littoral caves decreases with increasing depth into the cave as the light levels diminish. Fauna usually only occur on the lower and mid-level walls of the caves and generally comprise barnacles, anemones and tubeâ€forming polychaetes.
Indicators of quality:                                                                                                                      
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
Rhodophyta (red algae) - Hildenbrandia rubra, Phymatolithon lenormandii, Gymnothamnion elegans, Ellisolandia elongata, Lithophyllum byssoides.
Anthozoa - Actinia equina.
Isopoda - Ligia italica.
Cirripedia - Perforatus perforatus, Chthamalus stellatus, Chthamalus montagui.

Classification:
EUNIS (2007):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Features of littoral rock’ (A1.4)
 
Annex 1:
8330 Submerged or partially submerged sea caves
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped.
 
IUCN: 
Rocky shoreline
 
Barcelona Convention (RAC/SPA):
II. 4. 3. Mediolittoral caves

Map Description:
This map has been generated using data from IUCN based on Giakoumi S. et al. (2013) and V. Gerovasileiou, and supplemented with expert opinion. EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this may not indicate the full distribution of the habitat.

Trends in Quantity:
The nature of this habitat means it can be ephemeral and subject to significant natural fluctuations as a result of patterns of erosion and deposition on the shore and climatic conditions.
Marine caves and overhangs had remained almost totally unexplored until the middle of the last century. Since then, the studies have focused primarily on their faunal composition and community structure and almost no information seems to exist regarding trends of this habitat. The number of known caves in the Mediterranean is 2,867 (EU 2,543 caves) however this value could be higher as much of the south Mediterranean Sea remains unexplored.

Trends in Quality:
Most literature on marine caves has been focused on species composition, distribution patterns and ecological features and less on the processes determining spatial and temporal variation on the habitat. The high complexity of the processes, even for the shallowest caves and overhangs, is still largely unknown and therefore trends in quality cannot be assessed at the present time.
Deterioration in quality of some caves have been reported, particularly breeding areas use by the critical endangered Mediterranean monk seals.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The vast majority of marine caves recorded are located in the northern Mediterranean basin with 2,543 caves (89% of the known Mediterranean caves) lying within the EU 28. The highest number of caves are found in the Adriatic Sea, followed by the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Algero-Provencal Basin.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is present along the whole Mediterranean basin. The EOO exceeds 50,000km2  therefore it does not have a small natural range.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is present along the whole Mediterranean basin and the EOO exceeds 50,000km2. The EOO exceeds 50,000km2  therefore it does not have a small natural range.

Pressures and Threats:
The characteristic species of this habitat are highly resistant to environmental stress however man-induced alterations like harbour or dock constructions in nearby areas can change the hydrodynamics with consequences for the associated assemblages. Invasive non-native species, pollution and discharges from coastal urban areas are also current pressures and temperature and sea level rise might threaten the habitat in the future. Uncontrolled diving, snorkeling or even speleology can be additional pressures on this habitat.

Conservation and Management:
Marine cave habitats are protected by the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) under the name “Submerged or partially submerged sea caves” (Habitat code 8330). Semidark and dark cave communities have been included in two Action Plans by UNEP-MAP-RAC/SPA (2008 and 2015 respectively), adopted by contracting parties of the Barcelona Convention specifically aiming at their conservation. An evaluation on Mediterranean MPA in 2008 has shown that around 56% of the Mediterranean MPAs include marine caves although, the accurate number of marine caves within designated MPAs remains unknown.
The creation of a Marine Caves' Register at the country level with an assement of their ecological status, adequate regulations to protect these environments and further research to understand its diversity and function are recommended.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
8330: MMED U1.
Marine caves are also habitat for some species of endangered bats and they are also a significant habitat for resting and reproduction of the endangered Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus). As such,&

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat might be able to recover to certain environmental stresses, however depending of the factor it might not be able to recover easily or no at all (e.g. when invaded by invasive algae or when building works take place in the surrounding area).

Summary:
Mediolittoral caves and overhangs are found on most rocky shores regardless of wave exposure. The shaded nature of caves and overhangs diminishes the amount of desiccation suffered by biota during periods of low tides which allows certain species to proliferate.Algal growth is restricted to a very few species and canopy-forming macroalgae are absent. In the Mediterranean Sea it supports several rare and protected species including the critically endangered Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus),  and as acts as a nursery area for fish, especially groupers (Epinephelus marginatus). 
The characteristic species of this habitat are highly resistant to environmental stress however man-induced alterations like harbour or dock constructions in nearby areas can change the hydrodynamics with consequences for the associated assemblages. Invasive non native species, pollution and discharges from coastal urban areas are also current pressures and temperature and sea level rise might threaten the habitat in the future. A evaluation on Mediterranean MPA in 2008 has shown that around 56% of the Mediterranean MPAs include marine caves. Further work is needed to identify appropriate conservation measures.

References:
Abdulla, A., Gomei, M., Maison, E., Piante, C. 2008. Status of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean Sea. Malaga and France: IUCN and WWF. 152 p.
Ballesteros, E., Mariani, S., Cefalì, M. E., Terradas, M., Chappuis, E. 2014. Manual dels hàbitats litorals a Catalunya. Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Territori i Sostenibilitat, Barcelona. 251 pp.
Gerovasileiou, V., Chintiroglou, C., Vafidis, D., Koutsoubas, D., Sini, M., Dailianis, T., Issaris, Y., Akritopoulou, E., Dimarchopoulou, D. and Voultsiadou. E. 2015a. Census of biodiversity in marine caves of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Mediterranean Marine Science 16: 245-265.
Gerovasileiou V, Voultsiadou E, Issaris Y, Zenetos A. 2016. Alien biodiversity in Mediterranean marine caves. Marine Ecology. ISSN 0173-9565
Giakoumi, S., Sini, M., Gerovasileiou, V., Mazor, T., Beher, J., Possingham, H. P., Abdulla, A., Çinar, M. E., Dendrinos, P., Gucu, A. C., Karamanlidis, A. A., Rodic, P., Panayotidis, P., Taskin, E., Jaklin, A., Voultsiadou, E., Webster, Ch., Zenetos, A., Katsanevakis, S. 2013. Ecoregion-based conservation planning in the Mediterranean: dealing with large-scale heterogeneity. PLoS ONE, 8: e76449. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076449
Parravicini, V., Guidetti, P., Morri, C., Montefalcone, M., Donato, M., Bianchi, C. N. 2010. Consequences of sea water temperature anomalies on a Mediterranean submarine cave ecosystem. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86 276-282
Pérès, J. M. and Picard, J. 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique de la Mer Méditerranée. Recueil des Travaux Statione Marine d’Endoume 31 (47): 3-137.
Riedl, R. 1966. Biologie der Meereshöhlen. Paul Parey, Hamburg, 636 p.
Templado, J., Ballesteros, E., Galparsoro, I., Borja, A., Serrano, A., Marín, L. and Brito, A. 2012. Guía interpretativa: Inventario español de hábitats marinos. Inventario español de hábitats y especies marinos. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. 229 pp.

Criterion A Text:
Although several studies have described the biodiversity of this habitat and its importance for some of the associated endangered species, there is limited information on trends in quantity. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the Mediterranean region. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. Trends are unknown. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1(c) B2 (c) and B3 and Data Deficient for all other criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
The assessment of reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality is not possible due to the lack of studies and data on past state conditions of marine cave habitats for most Mediterranean areas. However the quality of this habitat can be affected by  uncontrolled visitation by SCUBA divers, coastal and harbour development, water temperature rise, presence of alien species and marine pollution. Some degraded examples have been reported in the biotic and abiotic conditions but overall it is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion C/D1.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available to estimate the probability of collapse of this habitat type. Therefore the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a widespread distribution in the Mediterranean. It is present within Marine Protected Areas but accurate numbers and the ecological status of these caves is generally unknown. Localised studies have been conducted at different sites mostly in the Western Mediterranean, but the earliest data were only published in 1940-50. Consequently, there is a lack of quantiative data on trends although expert opinion is that  habitat quality has most likely decreased in response to pressures such as habitat destruction associated with coastal development 
This habitat has a large EOO and AOO, and therefore qualifies as Least Concern under criterion B. However the habitat is assessed as Data Deficient both at the EU 28 and EU 28+ levels because of a lack of information on any trends in quantity and quality.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Marine cave habitats are characterised by very distintive biocenoses, fauna and ecological features and a with a high degree of variability. More detailed studies are needed to elucidate if there is a general pattern of distinct sub-habitats withi

Contributors:
S. Mariani, E. Ballesteros, M. Elena Cefalì.


Habitat Type Name:
A2.25: Communities of Mediterranean mediolittoral sands

Habitat Description:
This habitat occupies the boundary between the poorly swashed, almost dry supralittoral sands and the permanently submerged infralittoral sands of Mediterranean beaches. The sediment grains range from gravels to fine sands. Coarser sediments are often found in beaches exposed to stronger wave action whilst finer sediments are common on the more sheltered shores. Depending on the sediment characteristics the infauna is dominated by polychaetes, oligochaetes, bivalves, amphipods and bivalves. Characateristic species of associated biotopes incude the polychaetes Pisione remota, Saccocirrus papillocercus, Scolelepis squamata and Ophelia bicornis,  the isopod Eurydice affinis and on the lower shore  by the bivalves Donax semistriatus and D. trunculus and the crab Portumnus latipes. This habitat is used for nesting by loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta and green turtle, Chelonia mydas in parts of the eastern Mediterranean.
Indicators of quality:    
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices
which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change overtime.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.   As most bivalves are sensitive to pollution, air exposure, and habitat destruction they could be potential indicators of quality for this habitat.                                                                                                                         
 
Characteristic species:      
Polychaeta-  Pisione remota, Saccocirrus papillocercus, Hesionura serrata, Microphtalmus similis, Scolelepis squamata, Ophelia bicornis.
Bivalvia- Donax semistriatus, Donax trunculus, Donacilla cornea, Ensis minor, Dosinia lupinus, Kurtiella bidentata.
Gastropoda- Caecum trachea, Nassarius mutabilis.
Amphipoda- Ecchinogammarus foxi, Melita bulla, Stenothoe sp., Monocorphium sextonae.
Isopoda- Eurydice affinis, Sphaeroma serratum.
Decapoda- Portumnus latipes,

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of 'Littoral sand and muddy sand’ (A2.2).
 
Annex 1:
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
 
MAES:
Marine - Inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal 
 
MSFD:
Littoral sediment
 
IUCN:
12.2 Sandy Shorelines and/or Beaches, Sand Bars, Spits, etc.
 
Barcelona Convention (RAC/SPA):
I. 2. 1. Biocenosis of supralittoral sands

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Mediolittoral sands are common and widespread throughout the Mediterranean.

Trends in Quantity:
There is limited information on the overall extent and trend in quanitity of this habitat but regional studies from many areas suggest it is decreasing and that the associated communities are either stable or decreasing. Much of this trend has taken place over the last century and has been associated with human activity. One estimate is that around 1,500 km of the EU Mediterranean coast had been transformed to “artificial coast” (mostly in the Balearic Islands, Gulf of Lion, Sardinia, and the Adriatic, Ionian, and Aegean seas).
Figures are available for various time periods and areas. For  example according to the Atlas of the Italian Beaches, 27 % of the Italian beaches are decreasing in extent, 70 % in equilibrium, only very few coastal stretches in progradation. Between 1965 and 1980, over 20 % of the 132 km-long French Riviera was permanently altered through the building of yachting harbours, reclaimation schemes and alteration of beaches. Along the Catalan coast of Spain, an estimated 72% of the beaches are consisdered to be retreating by an average of 1 metre a year.  Similar estimates have been made for beaches in Greece that are not near large river deltas. Overall in 2004 an estimated 40% of beaches in France, Italy and Spain were considered to be eroding  mostly due to human disturbance.
Given the current pressures, the general trend of beach erosion and loss of this habitat due to coastal development is considered likely to continue.

Trends in Quality:
There is a lack of information to determine any trends in quality of this habitat although indications of decline, apparent from reduced diversity of infauna, have been reported from some areas. Beach nourishment schemes, whilst aimed are reducing erosion of the habitat can also degrade habitat quality because of the use of inappropriate materials such as river bed gravels from alluvial plains, crushed stone, marine aggregates, and building materials.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Overall more than 46% of the Mediterranean coast is estimated to be dominated by soft sediments. The percentage within the EU 28 is unknown.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as the  EOO is larger than 50,000 km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as the  EOO is larger than 50,000 km2 nor an intrinsically restricted area.

Pressures and Threats:
This habitat is vulnerable to activities on a variety of scales. Coast protection schemes, illegal mining and development projects such as the construction of marinas as well as urban and tourist infrastructure can alter the hydrographic conditions, affect patterns of erosion and sediment size composition,and lead to changes in the infaunal communities. Trampling and disturbance on intensively used beaches can also have a detrimental effect on some species. In the Eastern Mediterranean, all these impacts are particularly known to affect sea turtle nesting by depriving them of their nesting grounds.The use of heavy machinery for cleaning the beaches and remove Posidonia beach-cast for the summer tourist season is also a common practice that affects the beach ecosystem.
Climate change could contribute significantly to beach erosion because of the predicted increase of storm activity and intensity, sea level rise and the interaction of both consequences.

Conservation and Management:
In some Mediterranean countries, strict limits and distance from the coast for dredging of sands and gravel are in place. Some beaches are also protected as NATURA 2000 sites and through regulation in MPAs because the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) use them as nesting beaches. Additional beneficial actions could including; preventing activities such as coast protection works that destablise the habitat or interfere with the natural dynamics; beach nourishment schemes using appropriate materials and developing  management practices for the beach cleaning which avoid the use of heavy machinery.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Beach nourishment schemes may be used to restore the natural dynamics of beaches and enhance accretion so that beach sediment accumulates or is stabilised. The associated infaunal species are robust and able to colonise rapidly. Restoration of their use as turtle nesting beaches is likely to be on a longer time scale and dependent on other factors which affect the distribution and health of sea turtles.

Summary:
This habitat occupies the boundary between the poorly swashed, almost dry supralittoral sands and the permanently submerged infralittoral sands of Mediterranean beaches. Coarser sediments are often found in beaches exposed to stronger wave action whilst finer sediments are common on the more sheltered shores. Depending on the sediment characteristics the infauna is dominated by polychaetes, oligochaetes, bivalves, amphipods and bivalves
Accelerated erosion rates of this habitat is a widespread phenomenon along most of its basin mainly because of anthropogenic impact, e.g. the proliferation of marinas and other urban and tourist-industry infrastructure, sea level rise as a result of global warming, reduced river sediment inputs as a consequene of damming, river bed quarrying, land use changes, harbours and other coastal defence structures. These factors work at different scales in each coastal region. The acceleration of sea level rise and increase of stockastic climate driven events will enhance the loss of this habitat in the future.
In some Mediterranean countries, strict limits and distance from the coast for dredging of sands and gravel are in place. Some beaches are also protected as NATURA 2000 sites and MPAs  because the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) nest regularly on these beaches. Additional beneficial actions could including; preventing activities such as coast protection works that destablise the habitat or interfere with the natural dynamics; beach nourishment schemes using appropriate materials and developing  management practices for the beach cleaning which avoid the use of heavy machinery.

References:
Alexandrakis, G., Karditsa, A., Poulos, S., Ghionis, G., Kampanis, A. 2010. An assessment of the vulnerability to erosion of the coastal zone due to a potential rise of sea level: the case of the Hellenic Aegean coast. In: Environmental Systems, [Ed. Achim Sydow], in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK, [http://www.eolss.net] [Retrieved October 24, 2010]
Aucelli P. et al. 2006. Lo stato dei litorali italiani. Gruppo Nazionale per la Ricerca sull’Ambiente Costiero. Studi Costieri 10: 5-112.
Ballesteros, E., S. Mariani, M. E. Cefalì, M. Terradas & E. Chappuis. 2014. Manual dels hàbitats litorals a Catalunya. Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Territori i Sostenibilitat, Barcelona. 251 pp.
Campbell ,et al. 2001. On status and conservation of marine turtles along the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea coast: results of the Darwin Initiative Sea Turtle Conservation Project 1998–2000. Zoology in the Middle East 24(1) 19-29.
Dexter, D. M. 1989. The sandy beach fauna of Egypt. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 29: 261-271.
EC. 2004. Development of a Guidance Document on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) and Coastal Erosion Final Report DGENV European Commission, (http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/iczm/pdf/coastal_erosion_fin_rep.pdf) Accessed 14 Aug 2014.
Fierro, G. & R. Ivaldi. 2001. The Atlas of the Italian Beaches: a review of coastal processes. In: ÖZHAN E. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on the Mediterranean Coastal Environment (MEDCOAST 01), Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey, vol. 3, 1557-1566 pp
Nicoletti, L., Paganelli, D., Gabellini, M. 2006. Environmental aspects of relict sand dredging for beach nourishment: proposal for a monitoring protocol. Quaderno ICRAM n. 5: 155 pp.
Özhan, E. 1993. Beach erosion and other management problems in the coastal zone of Tyre, Southern Lebanon, Unpublished report prepared for Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), UNESCO.
Pranzini, E. and Williams, A. T. 2013. Coastal Erosion and Protection in Europe Routledge/Earthscan, London, 454 pp.
Pranzini, E., Wetzel, L., William, A., 2015. Aspects of coastal erosion and protection in Europe. J Coast Conserv, 19: 445-459.
Pérès, J. M., & J. Picard. 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique de la Mer Méditerranée. Recueil des Travaux Statione Marine d’Endoume, 31(47): 3-137.
San Vicente, C. & J. C. Sorbe. 1999. Spatio-temporal structure of the suprabenthic community from Creixell beach (western Mediterranean). Acta Oecologica, 20: 377-389.
Semprucci, F., Frontalini, F., Covazzi-Harriague, A. et al. 2013. Meio- and Macrofauna in the marine area of the Monte St. Bartolo Natural Park (Central Adriatic Sea, Italy). Sci. Mar. 77: 189-199.
Templado, J., E. Ballesteros, I. Galparsoro, A. Borja, A. Serrano, L. Marín & A. Brito. 2012. Guía interpretativa: Inventario español de hábitats marinos. Inventario español de hábitats y especies marinos. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. 229 pp.
UNEP/MAP: State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environment, UNEP/MAP – Barcelona Convention, Athens, 2012.

Criterion A Text:
From the available information it is inferred on the basis of expert opinion and trends in Spain, France, Italy and Greece over the last 50 years, that there has been an overall decline of at least 30% in the extent of this habitat.
Given continuing coastal development pressures an estimated overall reduction of 30-40% is considered likely over any 50 year period including the recent past, present and near future. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable under criterion A1,A2a and A2b,  and Data Deficient under criteria A3 in the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. It is considered likely to have a continuing decline in quantity, however as EOO >50,000km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern for the EU 28 under all criteria and for criteria B1c, B2c and B3 for the  EU 28+. It is Data Deficient for all other criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
There is a lack of information to determine any trends in quality of this habitat although indications of decline, apparent from reduced diversity of infauna, have been reported from some areas. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria C/D.

Synthesis:
Although the quantitative data on trends are lacking and territorial data are not provided for all countries, it is possible to conclude from the available information that this habitat has undergone declines in extent and quality in the recent past. Such declines are expected to continue in response to ongoing pressures and predicted future impacts of climate change. The decline in extent over the last 50 years is estimated to have exceeded 30% and a similar scale of decline in predicted in the future. Declines in quality have not been quantified. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable for the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Contributors:
Mariani S., Ballesteros E., Elena Cefalì M.


Habitat Type Name:
A5.52A Algal dominated communities in the Mediterranean circalittoral sediment

Habitat Description:
Habitats formed in circalittoral sediments that usually have detritic components that allow erect macroalgae to grow over the seabed. The algal cover can be very variable, not always growing necessarily together with the maërl, and with a number of dominant species. They develop at low irradiances, usually between 5% and 0.5% of subsurface irradiance, at moderate to low hydrodynamism levels.
Several sub-habitats can be distinguished:
- Meadows of Osmundaria volubilis and Phyllophora crispa growing over detritic and gravel bottoms, between 50 and 90 meters depth. They can be very common in the central and North Western Mediterranean
- Kelp forests with Laminaria rodriguezii, below 70 meters depth and down to almost 100 meters depth from all the Mediterranean. This subhabitat can also grow shallower in special environmental conditions
- Kelp forests with Laminaria ochroleuca and Sacccorhiza polyschides, only in the Alboran Sea, northwestern coasts of Africa and the Strait of Messina, in places subjected to very strong currents.
- Beds of Halopteris filicina, between 55 and 100 meters depth.
- Gravel beds with Arthrocladia villosa and Sporochnus pedunculatus, between 30 and 50 meters depth.
- Gravel beds with Cystoseira spp.
 
Indicators of quality:                                                                                                                              
Habitat very variable according to several factors (nutrients, sedimentation, temperature, salinity, hydrodynamism) and to the main species dominating the assemblages. Some sub-habitats are rather constant through time (kelp habitats, Osmundaria volubilis) but others, like the subhabitat of Arthrocladia villosa and Sporochnus, are subjected to huge interannual variation in species composition and biomass.
Trends in abundance distribution and local species richness could be used as a proxy to examine quality overtime.The habitat can also change to non-native habitats dominated by two invasive species, Caulerpa cylindracea and C. taxifolia.
 
Characteristic species:
Rhodophyta (red algae)- Phyllophora crispa, Osmundaria volubilis, Rytiphlaea tinctoria, Alsidium corallinum, Scinaia complanata, Lithophyllum racemus, Spongites fruticulosus, Lithothamnion corallioides, Mesophyllum sphaericum, Phymatolithon calcareum, Acrothamnion preissii, Dasya baillouviana, Erythroglossum balearicum, Myriogramme tristromatica, Brongniartella byssoides, Osmundea pelagosae, Peyssonnelia rosa-marina, Peyssonnelia harveyana, Peyssonnelia crispata, Chylocladia verticillata, Gloiocladia repens, Sebdenia dichotoma, Cryptonemia tuniformis, Halymenia elongata, Halymenia latifolia, Nemastoma dumontioides, Rhodophyllis divaricata, Kallymenia requienii, Kallymenia spathulata, Phyllophora heredia, Sphaerococcus rhizophylloides.
Phaeophyta (brown algae)- Laminaria rodriguezii, Laminaria ochroleuca, Saccorhiza polyschides, Phyllariopsis purpurascens, Phyllariopsis brevipes, Dictyopteris lucida, Dictyopteris polypodioides, Arthrocladia villosa, Sporochnus pedunculatus, Halopteris filicina, Carpomitra costata, Asperococcus bullosus, Spermatochnus paradoxus, Stictyosiphon adriaticus, Stictyosiphon soriferus, Cutleria chilosa, Zanardinia typus, Cystoseira abies marina, Cystoseira foeniculacea f. latiramosa, Cystoseira spinosa var. compressa, Cystoseira zosteroides.
Chlorophyta (green algae)- Umbraulva dangeardii, Caulerpa taxifolia, Caulerpa cylindracea. 
Tunicates- Aplidium conicum, Rhopalaea neapolitana. 
Echinoderms- Chaetaster longipes, Ophiomyxa pentagona, Ophiopsila aranea, Spatangus purpureus. 
Crustaceans- Dardanus callidus, Dardanus arrossor, Pagurus prideaux, Lissa chiragra. 
Cnidarians- Eunicella singularis, Eunicella verrucosa. 
Fish- Dasyatis pastinaca, Zeus faber, Mullus surmuletus, Pagellus acarne, Pagellus erythrinus, Pagrus pagrus, Spicara maena, Blennius ocellaris.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of A5.52 Kelp and seaweed communities on sublittoral sediment.
Annex 1:
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral sediment (coarse, sand, mud, mixed)
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow coarse or mixed sediments
 
Barcelona Convention (RAC/SPA)
IV.2.2. Biocenosis of the coastal detritic bottom

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat does not present an outstanding example of the typical characteristics of the Mediterranean region.

Trends in Quantity:
No studies seems to have been conducted to examine trends in quantity of this type of detritic habitat. Expert opinion considers that the habitat is most probably decreasing since the middle of the 20th century at least in some part of the French coast as the Bay of Marseilles.
Moreover, some of the most representative species of the sub-habitat are stenothermic species and depend on the presence of cold waters. The warming of water bodies due to climate change therefore could be one of the main pressures affecting this habitat, especially in the communities of the Strait of Messina. Unfortunately, little information is available.

Trends in Quality:
Overall, there is no information regarding trend in quality of the habitat (or decline in habitat quality) throughout its distribution range.
In France, it is considered that the quality of this habitat has decreased because of the increase of sedimentation that changed the species composition and reduced the size of habitat. More the development of trawling in some parts in Provence has impacted the species composition.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
It is unknown how much of this habitat is hosted by the EU 28 in the Mediterranean.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a EOO larger than 50,000 km2

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is widespread along the Mediterranean coast.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threats to this habitat are illegal trawling, excess sedimentation due to construction and developments in the coastal and marine areas that can also decrease light penetration, limiting algae growth. Moreover, the habitat can also change and reduce in quality due to non-native species, particularly by two invasive species, Caulerpa cylindracea and C. taxifolia.
Climate change, particularly the warming of seawater can affect the distribution of some of the main structural species of this habitat such as L. rodriguezii since it is an endemic species.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat might be included within the limits of some marine protected areas (e.g. Alboran Island). Additional actions needed, might include the monitoring of the extension, abundance distribution and local species richness over time to examine trends and better regulation in certain areas of fishing activities, particularly trawling.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
1160 MMED XX
Laminaria rodriguezii is listed in the Annex 2 of the Barcelona Convention as well as Cystoseira genus (except Cystoseira compressa) and Kallymenia spathulata

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Unknown. There is no information regarding the capacity of these major macroalgal-dominated assemblages on coastal detritic bottoms to recover from certain impacts. Some parts of the life cycle are more sensitive to impacts and potential intraspecific competition.

Summary:
Habitats formed in circalittoral sediments that usually have detritic components that allow erect macroalgae to grow over the seabed. The algal cover can be very variable, not always growing necessarily together with the maërl, and with a number of dominant species. Some of the sub-habitats such as those of kelp forest are linked to particular oceanographic conditions such as those singular kelp forest communities inhabiting deep waters (20–100 m depth) in some localities at the Strait of Gibraltar and in the Mediterranean Sea (ej. Alboran Sea and Strait of Messina). The Mediterranean endemic Laminaria rodriguezii  also inhabits very deep waters (50–120 m depths) in the Western Mediterranean Sea and in the Adriatic Sea. 
The main threats to this habitat are illegal trawling, excess sedimentation due to construction and developments in the coastal and marine areas that can also decrease light penetration, limiting algae growth, non-native species, particularly by two invasive species, Caulerpa cylindracea and C. taxifolia and climate change, particularly the warming of seawater which is considerd likely to affect the distribution of some of the main structural species of this habitat such as the endemic L. rodriguezii.  This habitat might be included within the limits of some marine protected areas. Additional beneficial actions  include the monitoring of the extension, abundance distribution and local species richness over time to examine trends and better regulation in certain areas of fishing activities, particularly trawling.

References:
Ballesteros, E. 1988. Composición y estructura de los fondos de maërl de Tossa de Mar (Gerona, España). Collectanea Botanica 17(2): 161-182.
Ballesteros, E. 1992. Els fons rocosos profunds amb Osmundaria volubilis (Linné) R. E. Norris a les Balears. Bolletí de la Societat d’Història Natural de Balears 35: 33-50.
Curcó, A., Ferré, A., Font, J., Gesti, J., Vilar, L. and Ballesteros, E. 2008. Manual dels Hàbitats de Catalunya. Vol II. 1 Ambients litorals i salins. (Eds. J. Vigo, J. Carreras and A. Ferré). Departament de Medi Ambient i Habitatge. Generalitat de Catalunya. Barcelona. 312 pp.
Flores-Moya, A. 2012. Warm Temperate Seaweed Communities: A Case Study of Deep Water Kelp Forests from the Alboran Sea (SW Mediterranean Sea) and the Strait of Gibraltar. Chapter 15. C. Wiencke and K. Bischof (eds.), Seaweed Biology, Ecological Studies 219, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-28451-9_15, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012.
Giaccone, G., Alongi, G., Pizzuto, F. and Cossu, A. 1994. La vegetazione marina bentonica fotofila del Mediterraneo: II Infralittorale e Circalittorale. Proposte di aggiornamento. Boll. Accad. Gioenia Sci. Nat. Catania 27: 111-157.
Joher, S., Ballesteros, E., Cebrian, E., Sánchez, N. and Rodríguez-Prieto, C. 2012. Deep-water macroalgal-dominated coastal detritic habitats on the continental shelf off Mallorca and Menorca (Balearic Islands, Western Mediterranean). Botanica Marina 55: 485-497.
Pérès, J.M. and Picard, J. 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique de la Mer Méditerranée. Recueil des Travaux Statione Marine d’Endoume 31(47): 3-137.
Smale, D.A. and Wernberg, T. 2013. Extreme climatic event drives range contraction of a habitat-forming species. Proc. Biol. Sci. 280: 28-29.
Templado, J., Ballesteros, E., Galparsoro, I., Borja, A., Serrano, A., Marín, L. and Brito, A. 2012. Guía interpretativa: Inventario español de hábitats marinos. Inventario español de hábitats y especies marinos. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. 229 pp.
Thibaut, T., Blanfune, A., Verlaque, M., Boudouresque, C. and Ruitton, S. 2015. The Sargassum conundrum: very rare, threatened or locally extinct in the NW Mediterranean and still lacking protection. Hydrobiologia DOI 10.1007/s10750-015-2580-y
Thibaut, T., Blanfune, A., Boudouresque, C.F. and Verlaque, M. 2015. Decline and local extinction of Fucales in the French Riviera: the harbinger of future extinctions?  Medit. Mar. Sci. 16/1, 000-000.

Criterion A Text:
There is a lack of information on the quanity of this habitat and trends. It has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion A for both the EU 28 and E 28+.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has a patchy distribution in the Mediterranean but it is believed that the EOO is larger than 50,000km2 and the AOO is larger than 50, exceeding the thresholds for a threatened category. There is a lack of information on trends. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria B for the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
The assessment of reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality is difficult due to the lack of studies and data on past and present state conditions. Therefore, it is not possible to calculate the reductions in abiotic and/or biotic quality, although changes have been reported in the abiotic conditions of this habitat at several sites. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion C/D.

Synthesis:
This is a very poorly studied habitat type and few reports exist regarding its distribution at a handful of locations. Moreover, data on quality or quantity is lacking and the territorial data does not provide information for most Mediterranean countries. 
The habitat has a large EOO and AOO. There are some cases of reported declines but overall trends are unknown and cannot be quanitified. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient for both the EU 28 and EU 28+ .

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Gravel beds with Cystoseira spp
Kelp forests with Laminaria ochroleuca and Sacccorhiza polyschides
Kelp forests with Laminaria rodriguezii

Assessors:
M. Otero, A. Flores Moya and E. Bañares España.


Habitat Type Name:
A5.52B Algal dominated communities in the Mediterranean infralittoral sediment

Habitat Description:
This habitat develops on infralittoral sediment covered by algae in sheltered places and where organic matter enhances macroalgal growth. Different sub-habitats that can be distinguished by the dominant species composition and the environment they colonize. These include  Caulerpa prolifera,  Acetabularia calyculus, growing on dead shells of cockles and other clams; Penicillus capitatus, usually on sediments covering dead rhizomes of Posidonia oceanica as well as Valonia aegagropila, Rytiphlaea tinctoria or Alsidium corallinum, Ulva spp., Cladophora spp. and Gracilaria spp. The habitat is also very variable depending on nutrients, sedimentation, temperature, salinity, and hydrodynamism. 
Indicators of quality:                                                                                                                            
The habitat is able to withstand severe disturbances as the environment they live in is prone to a high frequency of these events. Moreover, in some cases they are naturally adapted to high nutrient levels as they are situated on estuarine environments. In general, the subhabitat of Cystoseira barbata f. repens is more vulnerable than other subhabitats to environmental pressures. Dominance by species of Ulva, Cladophora and Gayralia usually indicate high quantities of nutrients. The presence of Syngnathidae (Hippocampus, Syngnathus) usually indicates good environmental quality. 
 
Characteristic species:
Only species living above the sediment are included.
Rhodophyta (red algae)- Rytiphlaea tinctoria, Alsidium corallinum, Osmundaria volubilis, Lithothamnion corallioides, Gracilaria gracilis, Gracilaria dura, Palisada patentiramea, Radicilingua thysanorhizans, Gracilariopsis longissima. 
Phaeophyta-Cystoseira barbata f. repens, Dictyota mediterranea, Sargassum muticum, Undaria pinnatifida. 
Chlorophyta (green algae)-Acetabularia calyculus, Caulerpa prolifera, Caulerpa cylindracea, Caulerpa taxifolia, Valonia aegagropila, Gayralia oxysperma, Ulva intestinalis, Ulva curvata, Ulva rigida, Ulva prolifera, Cladophora vagabunda, Cladophora echinus, Chaetomorpha linum, Chaetomorpha crassa.
Bryozoans-Zoobotryon verticillatum. 
Crustaceans-Crangon crangon, Palaemon adspersus, Palaemon xiphias, Carcinus aestuarii, Gnatophyllum elegans, Ilia nucleus.
Fish-Gobius niger, Syngnathus abaster, Hippocampus guttulatus, Hippocampus hippocampus, Chelon labrosus, Liza ramada, Atherina boyeri, Atherina presbyter, Mugil cephalus.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of A5.5 Shallow sublittoral/infralittoral mixed sediments.
 
Annex 1:
1160 Shallow inlets and bay
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral sand
Shallow sublittoral coarse sediment
Shallow sublittoral mixed sediment
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow sands
Shallow coarse or mixed sediments
 
Barcelona Convention (RAC/SPA): 
III.2.3. Biocenosis of superficial muddy sands in sheltered waters
III.2.3.6. Association with Caulerpa prolifera on superficial muddy sands in sheltered waters
III.1.1. Euryhaline and eurythermal biocenosis

Map Description:
This map has been generated using data from the Global Lakes and Wetlands Data Base and the Mediterranean Wetlands Observatory and supplemented with expert opinion. EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this may not indicate the full distribution of the habitat

Trends in Quantity:
This habitat develops in sheltered locations such as enclosed bays and coastal lagoons. These areas have been subject to loss, for example from the drainage of wetlands and reclamation for agriculture. This has taken place historically but is also ongoing.  In Albania, more than 50 percent of the coastal wetlands have been lost after the 1950s. Similarly, In Greece, the wetland surface of the Amvrakikos Gulf has decreased from 65 percent in 1945 to 41 percent in 1999 as well as outside EU 28+  Moreover, there are also local studies that reported the dissapearance of the sub-habitat with Cystoseira barbata f. repens close or adjacent to harbous in  enclosed bays due to pollution (e.g.in the Baleares Islands, Spain).

Trends in Quality:
Although this habitat is known to develop in areas subject to nurtrient enrichment changes in the performance and production of fauna has also been reported as a consequence of heavy metal pollution, PCBs, PHBs and other contaminants for example at Mar Menor in Spain due to former mining activities. In the long term, climate change present scenarios where a temperature increase would expect to also affect the photosynthesis capacity of the subhabitat of Caulerpa prolifera  and cause un increase of euthrophication. Future climate change will also affect and contribute to the lost of habitats due to the increase sea level rise

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Unknown but this habitat is known to occur in both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Pressures and Threats:
The habitat is threatened by land reclamations, pollution sedimentation coming from watersheds, competition with non-native species and sedimentation coming from the basins slopes. When the habitat is enhanced by polluted and nutrient-rich waters a succession of habitats occur and drives to a dominance by species of Ulva, Cladophora and Gayralia and environments dominated by temperate introduced macroalgae (Sargassum muticum, Undaria pinnatifida and others). Climate change induced impacts such as changes in temperature, pH and salinity are also threats for the future.

Conservation and Management:
The protection of coastal wetlands has become a priority objective in resource conservation policies of the Mediterranean region. The lack of an adequate management of these areas has been recognized in several forums as the main cause leading to an ecological degradation and as a consequence, to the different associated habitats. Different management strategies have been applied in different countries, however there is limited information on their effectiveness. Given the current and forecast impacts, there is also a strong need to design management policies to mitigate climate change impacts. Recovery through intervention to improve water quality would also be beneficial.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
1160 MMED XX
Cystoseira barbata is included in the Annex II of the Barcelona Convention. Some areas where this habitat occurs may be protected sites under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance espec

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Recovery through intervention to improve water quality and transplantation of Cystoseira specimens has been suggested as a tool to be explored in order to restore extinct populations.

Summary:
This habitat develops on infralittoral sediment covered by algae in sheltered places and where organic matter enhances macroalgal growth. Different sub-habitats t-can be distinguished by the dominant species composition and the environment they colonize. 
The habitat is threatened by land reclamation, pollution, sedimentation coming from watersheds, and competition with non-native species   Climate change induced impacts such as changes in temperature, pH and salinity are also threats for the future.Some sub-habitats e.g. those dominated by Cystoseira barbata f. repens are more vulnerable than others to environmental pressures. Given the current and forecast impacts, there is a strong need to design management policies to mitigate climate change impacts. Recovery through intervention to improve water quality would also be beneficial. However, more efforts are needed to know the distribution of this habitat in these environments and its conservation status in the Mediterranean.

References:
Ballesteros, E., S. Mariani, M.E. Cefalì, M. Terradas & E. Chappuis 2014. Manual dels hàbitats litorals a Catalunya. Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Territori i Sostenibilitat, Barcelona. 251 pp.
Cataudella S., Crosetti D., Massa F. (eds), 2015. Mediterranean coastal lagoons: sustainable management and interactions among aquaculture, capture fisheries and the environment Studies and Reviews. General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean. No 95. Rome, FAO.  278 pp.
Curcó, A., A. Ferré, J. Font, J. Gesti, L. Vilar & E. Ballesteros 2008. Manual dels Hàbitats de Catalunya. Vol II. 1 Ambients litorals i salins. (Eds. J. Vigo, J. Carreras & A. Ferré). Departament de Medi Ambient i Habitatge. Generalitat de Catalunya. Barcelona. 312 pp.
Fabbri E., Dinelli, E. 2014. Physiological responses of marine animals towards adaptation to climate changes. In "The Mediterranean Sea: Its history and present challenges" edited by Stefano Goffredo, Zvy Dubinsk. 405-413.
Giaccone, G., G. Alongi, F. Pizzuto & A. Cossu. 1994. La vegetazione marina bentonica fotofila del Mediterraneo: II Infralittorale e Circalittorale. Proposte di aggiornamento. Boll. Accad. Gioenia Sci. Nat. Catania, 27: 111-157.
Mediterranean Wetlands: Outlook. First Mediterranean Wetlands Observatory report - Technical report - 2012. Tour du Valat, France. 128 pages.
Pérès, J. M. & J. Picard. 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique de la Mer Méditerranée. Recueil des Travaux Statione Marine d’Endoume, 31(47): 3-137.
Templado, J., E. Ballesteros, I. Galparsoro, A. Borja, A. Serrano, L. Marín & A. Brito. 2012. Guía interpretativa: Inventario español de hábitats marinos. Inventario español de hábitats y especies marinos. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. 229 pp.
Sales Villalonga, M. 2010. Cystoseira-dominated assemblages from sheltered areas in the Mediterranean Sea: Diversity, distribution and effects of pollution. PhD thesis, University of Girona.

Criterion A Text:
Much of this habitat develops in sheltered locations such as the inner most parts of sheltered bay and historical data show that such areas have been subject to serious loss expert opinion is that this habitat has decline in quanitity by at least 50% over the last 50 years. Estimates for its future are unprecise, but climate change and the current pressures, will affect and reduce this habitat.This habitat is therefore been assessed as Endangered under Criteria A1 for both EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the Mediterranean. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. Trends are declining although the distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under all criteria for both EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
The ecosystem where this habitat develops is characterized by a great varibility in its ambient conditions that makes difficult to obtain estimations of degradation in the biotic and abiotic quality. Nonetheless, many scientific and monitoring works highlight a strong decrease in quality due to widespread contamination, sewage discharge, eutrophication and others local threats along the coastline of Mediterranean countries. Direct and indirect impacts drive by climate change will affect the habitat in the near future according to the geographical and environmental conditions of each site.
It is not possible to calculate the reductions in abiotic and/or biotic quality, although changes have been reported in the abiotic conditions of this habitat at several sites. The habitat type has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion C/D.

Synthesis:
In spite of the widespread nature and importance of this habitat, very little is known about it. The habitat is known to have suffered substantial habitat loss and also degradation in quality over the last 50 years and this is expected to continue. The scale of habitat loss has been estimated as over 50%. Declines in quality cannot be quantified. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Endangered at the EU 28 and at the EU 28+ .

Contributors:
E. Ballesteros, E. Alcázar, A. Guelmami .


Habitat Type Name:
A4.12 Sponge communities on lower circalittoral rock

Habitat Description:
This habitat type typically occurs on circalittoral rock (commonly  below 30m depth) in areas subject to negligible tidal streams. The sponge component is the most striking feature, and can be present in large aggregations. The sponges are important structure components; they contribute to bioerosion, consolidate sediment and stabilise habitats thereby reducing physical disturbance, and through aggressive competitive growth and seasonal retraction maintain space for new recruits and species thus maintaining biodiversity.
A species rich hydroid/bryozoan turf may develop in the understorey of this diverse sponge assemblage. Sponge fields also support various ophiuroids, which use the sponges as elevated perches. The prominent mobile species of the associated community consist mainly of decapod crustaceans, gastropod molluscs and echinoderms. A diverse 'cryptofauna' of nemerteans, polychaetes and amphipods also exists, living within and between the larger sessile organisms, acting as grazers, predators and detritivores. Fish  may also be present, but they are not considered characteristic members of the community. 
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreedindicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis. Indicators of 'naturalness' have been described for this habitat and may be used to make some assessment of habitat quality. These are; community composition including the presence of older, larger individuals within the community, presence of intact (undamaged) fragile sponges and other fragile epifauna, low levels of silt, filter feeders unsmothered, no increases of silt tolerant species, and presence of typical species.
Characteristic species:
The sponges Phakellia ventilabrum, Axinella infundibuliformis, Axinella dissimilis and Stelligera stuposa dominate. Other sponge species frequently found on exposed rocky coasts are also present in low to moderate abundance. These include Cliona celata, Polymastia boletiformis, Haliclona viscosa, Pachymatisma johnstonia, Dysidea fragilis, Suberites carnosus, Stelligera rigida, Hemimycale columella and Tethya aurantium. The cup coral Caryophyllia smithii and the anemone Corynactis virdis may be locally abundant in some areas, along with the holothurian Holothuria forskali. In deeper waters there may be dense aggregations of Artemisina transiens. The soft corals Alcyonium digitatum and Alcyonium glomeratum are frequently observed. The bryozoans Pentapora foliacea and Porella compressa are also more frequently found in this deep-water habitat type. Bryozoan crusts such as Parasmittina trispinosa are also occasionally recorded. Isolated clumps of large hydroids such as Nemertesia antennina, Nemertesia ramose, Sertularella gayi as Aglaophenia pluma, erect bryozoans including Cellaria sinuosa, Bugula flabellata, Bugula plumose, Bugula turbinata, P. foliacea, A. diaphanum may be seen on the tops of boulders and rocky outcrops. Large echinoderms such as Echinus esculentus, Luidia ciliaris, Marthasterias glacialis, Strichastrella rosea, Henricia oculata and Aslia lefevrei may also be present. The sea fan Eunicella verucosa may be locally common and the snail Calliostoma zizyphinum is often recorded as present.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic circalittoral rock’ (A4.1)
 
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow photic rock or biogenic reef
 
IUCN:
9.2 Subtidal rock and rocky reefs

Trends in Quantity:
The full extent and quantity of this habitat in the North East Atlantic region is unknown. Evidence of any trends in extent of occurrence is very sparse although there are limited data from a few long-term monitoring sites. One example is around the island of Lundy, UK, where some losses were reported following persistent gales. Populations of erect sponges in this location are also believed to have been depleted by museum collecting in the early 1970s.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat occurs in the EU 28+ e.g. Norway, Channel Islands, Isle of Man.The percentage hosted by the EU 28 is likely to be between 85-90% but there is insufficient information to establish the exact figure.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
There is a lack of information on the distribution and abundance of this habitat in the North East Atlantic. However as it is known to occur in locations as widely separated as the Cantabrian shelf, the Formigas Bank in the Azores, the west coast of Ir

Justification of Restricted Area:
There is a lack of information on the distribution and abundance of this habitat in the North East Atlantic. However as it is known to occur in locations as widely separated as the Cantabrian shelf, the Formigas Bank, Azores, the west coast of Ireland,

Pressures and Threats:
The habitat is fragile and sensitive to direct physical disturbance from demersal fishing gear. This includes trawling, dredging, bottom set nets and potting. Smothering by suspended sediments which could result from fishing activity, dredge disposal or nearby construction are other potential threats. The collecting of sponge specimens for natural history studies and for biomedical purposes has also been identified as potential threats in some locations. Climate change may change the composition of species associated with this habitat in the future.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is present within some Marine Protected Areas and in zones where the use of bottom trawling in prohibited (e.g. on the Cantabrian Shelf). There are some long term monitoring sites (e.g. Isles of Scilly, UK), however no conservation measures that specifically target this habitat have been identified.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Little is known about the capacity of this habitat to recover when severely damaged however the presence of large, slow growing organisms may mean that full recovery from damage or loss of such individuals, could take many years. Warm shallow-water sponge species have shown rapid recovery from physical disturbance, yet it is thought that the slower growing, cold deep-water sponge species are much more susceptible to physical damage.
Little is known of the longevity and recruitment prospects for the sponges that characterise this habitat but evidence from monitoring studies at Lundy, England, suggests that growth of Axinella dissimilis (as Axinella polypoides) and Homaxinella subdola is no more than about 2 mm a year (the sponges grow to a height of up to about 300 mm) and that all branching sponges included in photographic monitoring over a period of four years exhibited very little or no growth in that time. Furthermore, no recruitment of sponges was observed. The predominance of erect sponges in this habitat is likely to mean that any decline in the occurrence of this habitat is likely to be permanent.

Summary:
Detailed information on the abundance and extent of this habitat is lacking however survey information reveals that it has a widespread distribution (e.g. present in the Azores, Cantabrian Sea, off the coast of Northern Ireland, Shetland, and in Sweden). Survey data are available for some locations (both inshore and offshore) but cover relatively small areas (e.g. on the Pobie Bank ridge to the east of Shetland and transects across the Cantabrian shelf). The characteristic species of this habitat (sponges) are sensitive to direct physical disturbance from demersal fishing gear, as well as smothering by suspended sediments which could result from fishing activity, dredge disposal or nearby construction. Climate change may change the composition of species associated with this habitat in the future.
This habitat is present within some Marine Protected Areas and in zones where the use of bottom trawling in prohibited (e.g. on the Cantabrian Shelf). There are some long term monitoring sites (e.g. Isles of Scilly, UK), however no conservation measures that specifically target this habitat have been identified.

References:
Bell, J.J. 2008. The functional role of marine sponges. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79: 341-353.
Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N. et al. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 04.05 JNCC. [online] Peterborough: ISBN 1 861 07561 8. Availiable at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/04_05_introduction.pdf. (Accessed: 30/08/2014).
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 22/08/2014). 
Freese, J.L. 2001. Trawl-induced damage to sponges observed from a res research submersible. Marine Fisheries Review 63: 7-13.
Gall, A. 2011. Marine Biodiversity Action Plan habitats and species of the Isles of Scilly. An update to the Isles of Scilly Biodiversity Audit 2008. Nature England. Availiable at: http://www.dassh.ac.uk/dataDelivery/filestore/1/1/6/8/1_96e3efc5c9f3d82/metadump.xml. (Accessed: 13/11/2015).  
Hartnoll, R.G. 1998. Volume VIII. Circalittoral faunal turf biotopes. Scottish Association of Marine Sciences. Oban: UK Marine SAC Project.
Hiscock, K., Southward, A., Tittley, I. and Hawkins, S. 2004. Effects of changing temperature on benthic marine life in Britain and Ireland. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 14: 333-362.
Hoffman, F., Tore Rapp, H., Zöller, T. and Reitner, J. 2003. Growth and regeneration in cultivated fragments of the boreal deep water sponge Geodia barretti Bowerbank, 1858 (Geodiidae, Tetractinellida, Demospongiae). Journal of Biotechnology 100: 109-118.
Lancaster, J. (Ed.), McCallum, S., Lowe, A.C., Taylor, E., Chapman, A. and Pomfret, J. 2014. Development of detailed ecological guidance to support the application of the Scottish MPA selection guidelines in Scotland’s seas. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No.491. Deep Sponge Communities – supplementary document.
OCEANA. 2011. OSPAR workshop on the improvement of the definitions of habitats on the OSPAR list. Background document for discussion: “Coral gardens”, “Deep sea sponge aggregations” and “seapen and burrowing megafauna communities”. Bergen: OSPAR. Availaible at: http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/OCEANA_OSPARworkshopdefinitionshabitats_October2011_Bergen_FINAL.pdf. (Accessed: 12/12/2015). 
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P., Gomes-Pereira, J., and Gonçalves, J. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Wassenberg, T.J., Dews, G. and Cook, D. 2002. The impact of fish trawls on megabenthos (sponges) on the north-west shelf of Australia. Fisheries Research 58: 141-151.

Criterion A Text:
There is insufficient information to determine any trends in quality of this habitat.This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria A for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a large EOO and AOO, and therefore qualifies as Least Concern under criterion B. However the habitat is assessed as Data Deficient both at the EU 28 and EU 28+ levels because of the lack of information on area and any trends in quantity and quality.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Biotopes characterised by different sponge species may benefit from further examination.


Habitat Type Name:
A1.16 Macaronesian communities of exposed eulittoral rock

Habitat Description:
This intertidal habitat occurs on rocky shores of bedrock and boulders in areas exposed to wave action during high tides as well as to the swell of large storms.   It includes eleven biotopes newly described specific to the Azores A1.1x_PT01 to A1.1x_PT11.  In the Canary Islands, these communities are widespread along exposed eulittoral rocks. Crustose as well as turf-forming macroalgae colonise the rock surfaces and faunal communities on the exposed rock surfaces include barnacles and limpets.
Indicators of Quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
Among the crustose species, the most abundant are Nemoderma tingitana, Ralfsia verrucosa, Pseudolithoderma adriatica and Porolithon onkodes,  whereas among turf-forming macroalgae, the most common species are Gelidium arbuscula, Gelidium canariense, Pterocladiella capillaceae, Laurencia viridis, Osmundea pinnatifida, Ceramium spp, and Polysiphonia spp.; The faunal components are mainly diverse gastropod species such as Patella spp. and Osilinus spp. as well as the rock crab Grapsus adscensioni.

Classification:
EUNIS (2004)
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘High Energy littoral rock’ (A1.1) with modification to include Macaronesia.
 
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock & biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
 
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Map Description:
There are insufficient data to provide a comprehensive and accurate map of the distribution of this habitat. This map has been generated using EMODnet data from modelled/surveyed records for the North East Atlantic (and supplemented with expert opinion where applicable) (EMODnet 2010., EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this is not the full distribution of the habitat .

Comment EU28+:
This habitat does not occur outside the EU28

Trends in Quantity:
There is scattered but insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in the intertidal zone which is subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient information about this habitat to determine historical trends in quality. As it occurs in the intertidal zone which is subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
100% is hosted by EU 28 in the North East Atlantic in the Macaronesian region.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it is present in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it is present in both the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands although it is restricted due to the geological characteristics of the rock shores: volcanic basaltic rocks eroded by high energy wave

Pressures and Threats:
The main threat to this habitat is related to the high intensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades. Harbour construction, tourism resorts have exerted siginificant pressures on habitats in the littoral zone. Poorly managed waste disposal and sewage discharge can be an additional pressure but this is less likely given the exposed conditions where this habitat occurs.
The increase in international maritime traffic in the harbours of main cities of the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance works may potentially lead to the introduction of marine exotic species. The ecological effects of such species on Macaronesian habitats have not been evaluated.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is included within some Marine Protected Areas where there are associated management measures, regulations and codes of conduct although not necessarily targeting this specific habitat. Regulation of coastal development and discharges to the marine environment and controls on activities that might lead to the introduction of invasive species are other measures that could benefit this habitat.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
There is insuficient information to determine whether this habitat retains the capacity to recover when severely damaged.

Summary:
This habitat is present on rocky shores of the Macaronesian islands of the Azores, Madeira and Canaries Archipelago that are very exposed to wave action. Rock surfaces are typically colonised by crustose and turf forming algae and the faunal components are mainly diverse gastropod species such as Patella spp. and Osilinus spp. as well as the rock crab Grapsus adscensioni.
The main pressures and threats are destruction or modification of the habitat as a result of coastal development. These include the construction of harbours and tourist resorts which can extend across the intertidal zone or affect the wave exposure. Waste disposal and sewage discharges to the marine environment can also damage or degrade the biotopes associated with this habitat although the exposure conditions means that these are unlikely to be major threats. More recently, oil platform maintenance works are a potential entrance vector for marine exotic species although any ecological effects on Macaronesia habitats have not been yet evaluated.
Beneficial measures include the regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as controls on the introduction of invasive species. Marine Protected Areas which include this habitat can act as a focus for the introduction of such measures.

References:
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 17/08/2014).
Haroun, R., Gil-Rodríguez, M. C., Wildpret de la Torre, W., Prud’homme van Reine, W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. Las Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.
Ramirez, R. Haroun, R. 2014. Variability in the abundance of the rock crab Grapsus adscensionis (Decapoda: Grapsidae)
in the Canary Islands (Eastern Atlantic). J. Shellfish Research 33(3): 787-793.
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P. et al. 2013. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. MeshAtlantic. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAc, p.126.
Templado, J., Ballesteros, E., Galparsoro, I., et al., 2012. Guía interpretativa inventario español de habitats y especies marinos. Madrid: Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente.

Criterion A Text:
This habitat is only present in the EU 28 in the North East Atlantic region. There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity but it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. It is assessed as Data Deficient under criteria A for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. Trends are unknown. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1(c ) B2 (c) and B3 and Data Deficient for all other criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
This habitat occurs in the littoral zone of the Macaronesian islands which are subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification. There is insufficient information to determine historical or future trends in quality although it is considered likely to decline in quality in the future if specific conservation measures are not introduced. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria C/D.

Synthesis:
There is insufficient information to determine historical, current or future trends in quantity or quality of this habitat although it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.
This habitat has a large EOO and AOO, and therefore qualifies as Least Concern under criterion B. However the habitat is assessed as Data Deficient both at the EU 28 and EU 28+ levels because of the lack of information on its extent and any trends in quantity and quality.

Assessors:
F.Otero-Ferrer, R. Haroun , N. Sanders and S. Gubbay

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group. S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F.Otero-Ferrer, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun Tabraue, N. Sanders


Habitat Type Name:
H2.4 Temperate high-mountain baserich scree

Habitat Description:
Calcareous and calcschist screes of high altitudes (mainly over 1000 m alt.) and cool sites in mountain ranges of the nemoral zone of Europe, including the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians, central and eastern parts of Balkan Peninsula, Apennines, etc. Scree habitat consists of rock fragments with different forms and sizes covering the frost-shattered summits of mountains or accumulating on slopes below calcareous cliffs. Calcareous and calcschist screes consist of base-rich rocks including limestone, dolomites, calcareous-schists, and marbles.
The screes are colonised by a set of mostly perennial species. The vegetation consists of assemblages of calcicole and basiphilous species, the composition of which depends on altitude and geographical ranges. Geographical isolation and limited size of high-altitudinal screes are explanations for the high level of specification found in the flora of calcareous screes, resulting in many relic and local endemic species. Also many vegetation alliances have limited ranges on the slopes of European mountains, for example in the Carpathians (Papverion tatrtici and Papavero-Thymion pulcherrimi), the Dinarides (Bunion alpini and Saxifragion prenjae), the Pirin Mountain in Bulgaria (Veronico-Papaverion degenii), the Pyrenees (Iberidion spathulatae, Iberido apertae-Linarion propinquae, Saxifragion praetemirsae Androsacion ciliatae), and the Apennines (Linario-Festucion dimorphae, Thlaspion stylosi). Some vegetation alliances, like the Thlaspion rotundifolii and Drabion hoppeanae (on slates), are more widespread in the Alps and Carpathians. The vegetation of high-mountain and subalpine, relatively humid, fine limestone and marl screes belongs to the alliance Petasition paradoxi. Here many fern species (Polystichum lonchitis, Dryopteris submontana, D. villarii, Asplenium fissum) are found as well as large number of calcicolous mosses.
Indicators of quality:
Occurrence of natural erosion processes.
High species richness of the cliffs.
Presence of rare, relict or endemic species.
Absence of human activities, including grazing.
Absence of alien species.

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Achillea atrata, A. clusiana, A. oxyloba, Adenostlyles alpina, Adonis distorta, Alchemilla decumbens, Alhtamanta cretensis, Alyssum cuneifolium, A. ovirense, A. repens, Anthemis carpaica, Aquilegia pyrenaica, Arabis alpina, A. caerulea, A. ferdinandi-coburgii, Arenaria bertolonii, A. ciliata, Aplenium fissum, Borderea pyrenaica, Bunium alpinum, Campanula cochlearifolia, C. pulla, C. velebitica, Cardaminopsis neglecta, Centaurea parlatoris, C. rupestris, Cerastiusm carinthiacum, C. tomentosum, C. transsilvanicum, Clorocrepis staticifolia, Cochlearia tatrae, Crepis pygmea, Cystopteris montana, Degenia velebitica, Delphinium oxysepalum, Doronicum carpaticum, Draba fladnizensis, Dryopteris submontana, D. villarii, Hypocharis robertia, Iberis spathulata, Festuca dimorpha, F. glacialis, F. pyrenaica, F. pulchella, Galium baldense, G. megalospermum, G. noricum, G. pyrenaicum, G. stojanovii, Gypsophila repens, Leucanthemum atratum, Ligusticum ferulaceum, Linaria purpurea, Minuartia certastifolia, Moerrihngia ciliata, M. muscosa, Myosotis ambigens, Omalotheca hoppeana, O. pichleri, Papver alpinum, P. pyrenaicum, P. suaveloens, Petasites paradoxus, Phyllitis scolopendrium, Poa minor, P. pirinica, Rumex scutatus, Polystichum lonchitis, Pritzelago alpina, Ranunculus carinthiacus, R. oreophilus, R. parnassifolius, Reseda glauca, Rhodiola rosea, Salix retusa, Saxifraga aizoides, S. bryoides, S. carpatica, S. glabella, S. moschata, S. oppositifolia, S. pedemontana, S. sedoides, S. wahlenbergi, Sedum atratum, Seseli malyi, Thlaspi bellidifolium, T. kerneri, T. rodtundifolium, T. stylosum, Thymus pulcherrimus, Trisetum distichophyllum, T. spicatum, Valeriana bertiscea, V. elongata, Veronica aragonensis, V. baumgartenii, V. nummularia, V. satureoides, Viola grisebachiana, V. magelensis, Xatardia scabra
Mosses: Blepharostoma trichophyllum, Conocephalum conicum, Homalothecium lutescens, Pohlia cruda, Polytrichum alpinum, Sanionia uncinata
Reptiles: Podarcis muralis
Birds: Alectoris graeca, Tichodroma muraria, Prunella collaris, Monticola saxatilis Mammals: Chionomys nivalis

Classification:
EUNIS:
H2.4 Temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes
EuroVegChecklist:
Thlaspion rotundifolii Jenny-Lips 1930
Papaverion tatrici Pawlowski et al. 1928 corr. Valachovic 1995
Papavero-Thymion pulcherrimi Pop 1968
Iberidion spathulatae Br.-Bl. 1948
Iberido apertae-Linarion propinquae Penas et al. ex Díaz González et Fernández Prieto 1994
Saxifragion praetermissae Rivas-Mart. 1977
Linario-Festucion dimorphae Avena et Bruno 1975
Thlaspion stylosi Feoli-Chiapella et Feoli 1977
Saxifragion prenjae Lakušic 1970
Bunion alpini Lakušic 1970
Veronico-Papaverion degenii Mucina et al. 1990
Drabion hoppeanae Zollitsch in Merxmüller et Zollitsch 1967
Androsacion ciliatae Rivas-Mart. 1988
Petasition paradoxi Zollitsch ex Lippert 1966
Arabidion alpinae Béguin in Richard 1972
Annex 1:
8120 Calcareous and calcschist screes of the montane to alpine levels
Emerald:
H2.4 Temperate-montane calcareous and ultra-basic screes
MAES-2:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
6. Rocky Areas [e.g. inland cliffs, mountain peaks]

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat type occurs mostly in the high mountains of Europe because the underlying conditions (functioning) are found best at high elevations (frost-shattered cliffs). Moraines also represent a major part of this habitat types in alpine and nival levels.

Map Description:
The map is complete for the EU, but incomplete for the Balkan and Switzerland. Data sources: EVA, Art17.

Trends in Quantity:
The current trend in quantity is stable at the European scale because this habitat is found in mountainous regions, which are weakly affected by human activities. There has been a slight decline in   the last 50 years, with a 3% reduction in quantity. This reflects local destructions by the developments of ski complexes, constructions of roads as well as quarrying. The decrease caused by the natural process of scree stabilization (i.e. favouring the establishment of grasses and shrubs) may have played a role over the historical period (250 years) but there is no available data to calculate precise values. The future trend is expected to be stable or slightly decreasing.

Trends in Quality:
A decrease in quality has been observed over the last 50 years but quite locally in the EU 28 (extent 6%) and with limited degradation (severity 33%). The reduction in quality is largely due to a loss of functionality of screes as a result of nearby constructions. When crossing screes, roads and ski runs reduce the mobility of scree materials (stones) by cutting their slow downward movement. Erosion and alteration of cliffs above screes - by regularly releasing materials - are also needed for good scree functioning. Securing works (e.g. wire nets placed on or below cliffs) of such cliffs are very likely to prevent screes from functioning normally. Historical trend might have followed the same evolution but not enough data are available to estimate precise values. Future trends in quality will certainly continue to decrease locally because of constructions. Climate change and higher temperatures will probably influence quality in the future but little is known about the possible outcomes at the European scale.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Of the current distribution of the habitat, 80 % lies within the EU 28, if one considers that this habitat’s native vegetation biota is limited to phytosociological alliances of Europe.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat has a wide distribution and does not show a sharp recent regression.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threat in Western Europe is the construction of many sorts of facilities in the mountain environment (high altitudes): ski complexes with ski runs, tracks and roads. Of particular concern is the reshaping of ski runs, which consists of leveling the terrain surface by grinding stones so as to make it as smooth as possible (‘boulevard’ ski runs). At lower altitudes quarrying is also a source of threats. Stabilization of screes and subsequent natural succession occurs also naturally when erosion of cliffs above stops, but this natural process is hard to quantify. Finally, climate change is reported as a threat by many countries; a slow but gradual change in species composition is already on-going.

Conservation and Management:
Screes are important natural features of the mountain environment. Therefore this habitat type has no specific management requirement to remain except leaving it undisturbed and undestroyed. Conservation is then effective when free evolution is possible, like within protected areas. ‘Manage landscape features’ refers to the need to better protect this kind of habitats with a high degree of naturalness in land-use planning, especially when no specific regulation can be applied (no protected species or habitat, outside a protected area, outside a Natura 2000 site).

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
8120: ALP FV, ATL U1, BOR FV, CON FV, MED FV

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat has some capacity to recover naturally, but it is dependent on particular geomorphological processes which are very slow (erosion). As far as we know there is no experiment of restoration of screes.

Summary:
This habitat consists of calcareous and calcschist screes occurring at high altitudes and cool sites in high mountain ranges through the nemoral zone of Europe. The screes are colonised by mostly perennial basiphilous species, comprising often rich assemblages with many local and endemic species.  The habitat is threatened by tourist activities and infrastructure, particularly the re-shaping of ski-runs with associated tracks and roads and, at lower altitudes also by quarrying. This habitat type has no specific management requirements except leaving it undisturbed as within protected areas.

References:
ValachoviÄ, M., Dierssen, K., Dimopoulos, P., HadaÄ, E., Loidi, J., Mucina, L., Rossi, G., Valle Tendero, F. and Tomaselli, M. 1997. The vegetation on screes - survey of higher syntaxa in Europe. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 32: 173-192.

Criterion A Text:
There has been a very slight reduction in quantity in Europe in the past 50 years. The values reported above were calculated with territorial data.  There is no available quantitative data on historical or future reductions in quantity and this habitat is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat is widespread, its extent of occurrence (EOO) is larger than 50,000 Km2 and the area of occupancy (AOO) is 253. Since the major threat to this habitat is infrastructure construction, it is estimated to occur at well more than ten locations. This habitat is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
There has been a reduction in quality with a slight decline (approximately 30% severity) affecting 6-7% of the extent of the habitat in the last 50 years. The values reported above were calculated using only territorial data .There is no information on historical or future trends in quality and this habitat. This habitat is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion C/D.

Synthesis:
Despite a variable level of data quality among countries and the lack of quantitative data, this habitat is assessed as Least Concern since it is widespread in Europe and the reductions in quantity (around 3%) and quality (slight decline, severity 33% affecting 6% of the extent of the habitat) over the past 50 years have been small and resulted in limited degradation.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No subhabitats have been distinguished for further analysis.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: R. Tzonev
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, R. Delarze, P. Finck, D. Gigante, N. Juvan, J. Loidi, V. Matevski, A. Mikolajczak, M. ValachoviÄ, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Rusakova, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
H2.6b Western Mediterranean base-rich scree

Habitat Description:
This is a calcareous and ultrabasic scree, constituted by boulders, rock debris and riverine gravel of the western Mediterranean, from lowlands through to the high mountains. It is composed by rock types that are sedimentary and metamorphic limestones and dolomites, further serpentinite and other ultramafic as well as silica-poor igneous volcanic rock such as basalt. Epilithic lichens and bryophytes may be very diverse, particularly in the mountains, where they are mostly found in crevices and other shady and humid microsites of immobile boulders. The vascular plant vegetation of western Mediterranean base-rich screes consists mainly of hemicryptophytes and chamaephytes adapted to the mechanical disturbance caused by mobile screes, shortages in water supply and lack of fine-grained soil. Many plants are disturbance-resilient and capable of regeneration even after being buried by moving stones. Prostrate stems, stolons, radicants, extensive root systems, storage tubers and rhizomes are common traits in the plants that are present in this habitat. Scree creeping, passive moving with mobile screes, and accumulation of scree through resilient tussocks and root stocks, thereby controlling erosion, are characteristic growth form functional strategies in Mediterranean screes. Species-rich genera of vascular plants are, among others, Campanula, Iberis, Linaria and Scrophularia. The species composition in the high mountains is particularly variable and includes many regional endemic taxa. Several phytosociological alliances restricted to subalpine and alpine levels of mountain ranges in the Iberian and Apennine Peninsulas or to the larger islands have been described. They reflect phytogeographical patterns of isolation and centers of speciation. Lowland scree and gravel vegetation is in comparison more uniform in the western Mediterranean. Most plant communities belong to the extremely variable class of Thlaspietea rotundifolii. Local habitat variation reflects differences in slope and substrate mobility, rock size and mineral composition, microclimate, aspect and solar radiation, humidity and precipitation.
Mediterranean base-rich screes cover extensive areas in the high mountains. In the lowlands and foothills, by contrast, they may be rare. Gravel banks occur along permanent or temporary streams. Western Mediterranean base-rich scree habitats occur from the Iberian Peninsula through southern France to the Apennines (Italy), on the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and on many of the smaller islands and archipelagos of the Tyrrhenian Sea, such as the Tuscan, the Aegadian and the Aeolian, and further in the Mediterranean domain of northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia).
Indicators of quality:
The dynamics of scree and gravel habitats depend on the natural constant supply of rock debris and riverine materials. When there is no supply from rock source areas above, the habitat and its vegetation will be subject to succession and gradually change in character towards grasslands, shrublands or woodlands. High-mountain screes in the western Mediterranean, underlying natural dynamics, are normally little or not affected by human impact. In contrast, riverine gravel fills in the lowlands, with their rivers, have commonly been subjected to quarrying, hydrological control or other drastic changes of the river regime. Human-made screes such as mining heaps may provide important and valuable secondary habitats, especially after long periods of abandonment. They should be considered and preserved when their quality is good, especially when primary scree habitats are absent in a wider area. The habitat quality must be assessed by taking into account the regional species pool. Scree and boulder specialists, with many endemics and relict plants among them, are useful indicators of good habitat quality.
The following characteristics may be used as indicators of favorable habitat quality:
Occurrence of rare and phyto-geographically significant plants
Presence of sizable areas of scree and gravel with adequate and ongoing supply of rock material through cliff, stream and river dynamics, and with local differences in slope, moisture, aspect, substrate mobility, and grain size
Contact with natural habitats such as cliffs, high-mountain pioneer grasslands and plant cushion vegetation, or riverine scrubs and woodlands
Absence of gravel quarrying and mining
Absence of hydrological and traffic constructions affecting the river regime

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Achillea barrelieri subsp. mucronulata, Achnatherum calamagrostis, Adonis distorta, Allium palentinum, Alyssum gadorense, Androsace ciliata, Andryala ragusina, Aquilegia pyrenaica (subsp. cazorlensis, subsp. discolor), Arabis alpina subsp. alpina, Arenaria bertolonii, Arrhenatherum (album, elatius subsp. sardoum), Biscutella valentina, Bunium (alpinum subsp. corydalinum, alpinum subsp. petraeum, macuca), Bupleurum ranunculoides subsp. ranunculoides, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites, Campanula (arvatica, cochleariifolia, jaubertiana), Carduus carlinoides, Centaurea (ceratophylla, delucae, prolongoi), Centranthus (lecoqii, ruber), Cerastium (soleirolii, thomasii, tomentosum), Cirsium acaulon subsp. gregarium, Cochlearia aragonensis subsp. navarrana, Coincya monensis subsp. cheiranthos, Conopodium thalictrifolium, Crambe filiformis, Crepis (granatensis, oporinoides, pygmaea), Cystopteris montana, Doronicum grandiflorum subsp. braunblanquetii, Dryopteris (oreades, submontana), Echium albicans, Erucastrum nasturtiifolium subsp. sudrei, Eryngium glaciale, Erysimum (duriaei, gorbeanum), Euphorbia nevadensis (subsp. aragonensis, subsp. bolosii), Festuca glacialis, Galeopsis angustifolia, Galium (cespitosum, cometerhizon, corsicum,  pyrenaicum, rosellum), Gouffeia arenarioides, Gymnocarpium robertianum, Hypochaeris robertia, Iberis (carnosa subsp. granatensis, carnosa subsp. hegelmaieri, carnosa subsp. nafarroana, ciliata, spathulata), Jurinea fontqueri, Lactuca (singularis, tenerrima, viminea subsp. chondrilliflora), Laserpitium gallicum, Leontodon hyoseroides, Leucanthemum (coronopifolium subsp. ceratophylloides, laciniatum), Leucopoa dimorpha, Linaria (aeruginea, badalii, faucicola, filicaulis, glacialis, propinqua, purpurea, supina), Minuartia cerastiifolia, Myosotis alpestris var. ambigens, Nepeta (amethystina subsp. amethystina, nepetella subsp. aragonensis), Noccaea stilosa, Papaver (ernesti-mayeri, lapeyrousianum), Plantago monosperma, Platycapnos saxicola, Poa balbisii, Polystichum lonchitis, Pritzelago alpina (subsp. auerswaldii, subsp. brevicaulis), Ptilostemon niveus, Ptychotis saxifraga, Ranunculus (alpestris ssp. leroyi, parnassifolius ssp. Favargeri), Reseda valentina, Rumex scutatus, Salix breviserrata, Saxifraga (oppositifolia subsp. murithiana, oppositifolia subsp. paradoxa, oppositifolia subsp. speciosa, pedemontana subsp. cervicornis, praetermissa), Scrophularia canina (subsp. canina, subsp. crithmifolia), Scrophularia sciophila, Secale strictum subsp. strictum, Sedum (annuum brevifolium, monregalense), Senecio pyrenaicus, Silene (boryi, inaperta subsp. inaperta, secundiflora), Spergula viscosa, Taraxacum sect. Alpina, Tolpis staticifolia, Trisetum distichophyllum, Verbascum conocarpum, Veronica (alpina, mampodrensis, nummularia) Vicia glauca subsp. giennensis, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria subsp. lusitanicum, Viola (crassiuscula, lapeyrousiana, magellensis.

Classification:
EUNIS:
H2.6 Calcareous and ultra-basic screes of warm exposures
EuroVeg Checklist:
Andryalion ragusinae Rivas Goday et Esteve 1972
Arrhenatherion sardoi Gamisans 1989
Calamagrostion pseudophragmitis Rivas-Mart. et al. 1984
Euphorbion rigidae S. Brullo et Spampinato 1990
Festucion dimorphae Bonin 1978
Glaucion flavi Br.-Bl. ex Tchou 1948
Iberido apertae-Linarion propinquae Penas et al. ex Díaz González et Fernández Prieto 1994
Linarion purpureae S. Brullo 1984
Petasition paradoxi Zollitsch ex Lippert 1966
Pimpinello tragium-Gouffeion provincialis Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1952
Platycapno saxicolae-Iberidion granatensis Rivas Goday et Rivas-Mart. 1963
Ptilostemo casabonae-Euphorbion cupanii Angiolini et al. 2005
Saxifragion praetermissae Rivas-Mart. 1977
Scrophularion sciophilae O. de Bolòs 1957
Thlaspion stylosi Feoli-Chiapella et Feoli 1977
Annex 1:
8130 Western Mediterranean and thermophilous screes
Emerald:
H2.6 Calcareous and ultra-basic screes of warm exposures
MAES-2:
Sparsely or unvegetated land
IUCN:
6. Rocky areas

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat represents an outstanding example for the Mediterranean biogeographic region due to the occurrence of a pool of species, mostly endemic, characterized by a high ecological specialization and a remarkable phytogeographical value.

Map Description:
The map is relatively complete for the EU, but has data gaps in the Western Mediterranean islands. Data sources: Art17.

Trends in Quantity:
Considering the collected territorial information, an overall habitat reduction of less than 3% over the last 50 years is estimated. Thus, it can be considered stable. Although no specific estimation is provided for the future trends, considering its current situation, it can be realistically projected to be stable.

Trends in Quality:
During the last 50 years, an average reduction in quality (21%) slightly affected ca. 25% of the habitat area. Lower stands seem to be significantly more sensitive to human-induced disturbances, while high mountains stands are intrinsically more protected from these. Historical and future trends cannot be estimated due to the lack of information.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
90% of the current distribution of the habitat type lies within the EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
A very small decline has occurred over the last 50 years (i.e. 2.2 km2).

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat cannot occur everywhere, since its establishment requires very specific environmental conditions. Thus, the total area occupied is naturally very limited.

Pressures and Threats:
Mining and quarrying represent the most concerning human-induced threat for this habitat, while sport and leisure activities seem to have less relevance. Scree stabilization occurred as a consequence of a road construction, which may lead to a replacement of the scree vegetation with other types, such as grasslands or scrublands.

Conservation and Management:
The best management practice for this highly natural habitat is to leave it simply untouched, thus avoiding any human interference with its natural processes. Natural succession, if any, cannot be seen as a threat. An increase on public awareness about the biological relevance of these apparently inhospitable and sterile environments is recommended.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Recovery of this habitat is possible provided that the natural geo-morphological processes are not hampered and that undamaged sites occur nearby. There is no further information available on this issue.

Summary:
This is calcareous and ultrabasic scree, constituted by boulders, rock debris and riverine gravel derived from sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, ultramafics and basic volcanics occurring through the western Mediterranean, from lowlands to the high mountains. Epilithic lichens and bryophytes may be very diverse, particularly in the mountains, where they are mostly found in crevices and other shady and humid microsites of immobile boulders. The vascular plant vegetation comprises hemicryptophytes and chamaephytes adapted to the mechanical disturbance caused by mobile screes, shortages in water supply and lack of fine-grained soil. The habitat becomes scarcer and more scattered to the foothills and lowlands and more prone to be affected by human disturbances, such as quarrying and infrastructure development but high mountain screes are usually well preserved and therefore in a very natural state. Future trends for such habitat are rather unpredictable, but most of the Mediterranean screes fall within natural reserves or protected areas. Public awareness and scientifically-based management of this habitat type are needed.

References:
ValachoviÄ, M., Dierssen, K., Dimopoulos, P., HadaÄ, E., Loidi, J., Mucina, L., Rossi, G., Valle Tendero, F. and Tomaselli, M. 1997. The vegetation on screes - survey of higher syntaxa in Europe. Folia Geobot. Phytotax. 32: 173-192.
Raimondo, F.M., Bazan, G., Gianguzzi, L., Ilardi, V., Schicchi, R. and Surano, N. 2000. Carta del paesaggio e della biodiversità vegetale della Provincia di Palermo. Quad. Bot. Ambientale Appl., 9 (1998): 3-160.

Criterion A Text:
A decline of 2.2% has been calculated over the past 50 years, based on the provided territorial data. There is no information on future and historic declines. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO and AOO values largely exceed the thresholds for a threatened category. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B. In addition, it is unknown whether there has been a continuing decline in spatial extent, abiotic and biotic quality; whether there is a threatening process that is likely to cause declines in the next 20 years, and whether the habitat exists at very few locations.

Criterion C/D Text:
A reduction in quality has been experienced in the last 50 years, affecting 25% of the extent with a 21% severity, as calculated by the territorial data information provided. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no information available to estimate the risk of collapse under Criterion E, and therefore it is assessed as Data Deficient.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assessed as Least Concern (LC) in view of its stable trend, since a reduction of less than 3% has occurred over the last 50 years. The quality of this habitat has decreased over the last 50 years, but it is not declining fast enough to qualify for a threatened category.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No subhabitats have been distinguished, but it is a very diverse habitat, illustrated by the large amount of phytosociological alliances covered, and subhabitats with different floristic composition may be distinguished for further analysis.

Contributors:
Type description: E. Bergmeier & G. Giusso del Galdo
Territorial data: S. Bagella., J. Capelo, D. Espírito-Santo, D. Gigante., G. Giusso del Galdo, J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, S. Sciandrello, D. Viciani
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
Perennial vegetation of rock walls not under the influence of sodium chloride of maritime origin. The habitat includes an enormous diversity of plant communities that, in turn, include several hundreds of taxa endemic to Macaronesia. The main large groups, that we consider as subtypes within H3.3,  are: i) plant communities dominated by succulent rosetted chamaephytic crassulaceae (Aeonium, Aichryson, Greenovia and Monanthes) of rock surface or crevices, endemic to the Canaries and Madeira ( Greenovio-Aeonietea vegetation class). Although a few taxa reach the Azores archipelago (e.g. Aichryson), this vegetation type is not recognized there; ii) communities of shady, humid, earthy, rock wall surfaces dominated by ferns and mosses (Anomodonto-Polypodietea vegetation class); iii) plant communities strictly of rock wall crevices directly exposed to rainfall, made up of  a great diversity of habitat-specialists, both pteridophytes and vascular plants (Asplenietea trichomanis vegetation class); iv) semi-nitrogen prone vegetation of rock wall crevices, including artificial old walls and buildings, dominated by hemi-criptophytes and chamaephytes (Parietarietea judaicae). The later, in spite of cosmopolitan distribution includes some endemic elements in Macaronesia. The subtypes thus considered are:
1.       Succulent rosette crassulaceae vegetation of the Canaries and Madeira. (i) This subtype has an enormous diversity and endemicity (see flora). Alliances included are Soncho acaulis-Aeonion (all canarian archipelago); Greenovion aureae (western Canaries); Aichryso monanthi-Monanthion laxiflorae (canarian and madeiran archipelagos, one taxon (Aichryson villosum) reaches the Azores but it belongs to subtype #2 there; Sinapidendro-Aeonion glutinosi (madeirean only).
2.       Brio-pteridophytic shady earthy rock wall, seldom epiphytic communities of Canaries, Madeira and Azores. (ii) This subtype shares some flora with exclusively epiphytic communities (Hymenophylion thumbrigensis) which is not considered here. Canaries, Madeira and Azores.  The alliances included are: Barthamio-Polypodion, Sellaginelo-Annogramion leptophyllae and Thelypterido-Woodwardion of wet walls with large ferns.
3.       Exposed rock wall crevices vegetation of the Canaries and Madeira. (iii) One alliance only: Cheilanthion pulchellae of xerophytic and termophyllous mafic rock crevices.
4.       Semi nitrogen-prone wall vegetation. (iv) Parietario-Galion, Cymbalario-Asplenion and Asplenion maritimi alliances are present. All archipelagos.
Indicators of good quality:
Physiognomical integrity and presence of local/regional bioindicator sets should be maximal. Disturbance regimes, mostly soil/rock removal or removal of protective arboreal vegetation, for shade, in the case of subtype #2 are indicative of collapse/loss of ecological quality. Nitrogen-prone rock vegetation, i.e subtype #4 tends to dominate if disturbance increases. Sometimes type F6.8a ( macaronesian halo-nitrophyllous tender- leaf shrubs) can also tend to invade the habitat under disturbance.
Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants:
Subtype #1[the majority of characteristic taxa, but not the exhaustive list of all taxa to be found in the habitat]:
Aeonium holochrysum, Aeonium smithii, Aeonium spathulatum, Aeonium urbicum, Andryala varia, Arabis caucasica, Ceterach aureum, Ceterach aureum var. parvifolium, Festuca agustini, Habenaria tridactylites, Hypericum reflexum, Monanthes muralis, Monanthes subcrassicaulis, Pericallis lanata, Rhamnus integrifolius, Senecio palmensis, Silene berthelotiana, Sonchus acaulis, Sonchus gummifer,Tinguarra cervariaefolia, Tolpis lagopoda, Aeonium balsamiferum, Aeonium canariense,Aeonium castello-paivae, Aeonium cuneatum, Aeonium decorum, Aeonium gomeraense, Aeonium goochiae, Aeonium haworthii, Aeonium hierrense, Aeonium lancerottense, Aeonium manriqueorum, Aeonium mascaense, Aeonium nobile, Aeonium palmense, Aeonium percarneum, Aeonium rubrolineatum, Aeonium saundensii, Aeonium sedifolium, Aeonium subplanum, Aeonium tabulaeforme, Aeonium undulatum, Aeonium valverdense, Aeonium vestitum, Aeonium virgineum, Aeonium viscatum, Aeonium xburchardii, Aichryson bethencourtianum, Aichryson bollei, Aichryson brevipetalum, Allagopappus viscosissimus, Chrysoprenanthes pendula, Crambe arborea, Crambe laevigata, Crambe scaberrima, Dendriopoterium menendezii, Greenovia dodrentalis, Hypochoeris oligocephala, Micromeria teneriffae, Minuartia platyphylla, Parietaria filamentosa, Phyllis viscosa, Polycarpaea carnosa, Salvia broussonetii, Sedum lancerottense, Sonchus congestus, Sonchus radicatus, Sonchus tectifolius, Sonchus tuberifer, Tolpis crassiuscula, Vieraea laevigata, Aeonium simsii, Babcockia platylepis, Greenovia aizoon, Greenovia aurea, Greenovia diplocycla, Silene pogonocalyx, Tolpis calderae, Aichryson bituminosum, Aichryson inmaculatum, Aichryson laxum, Aichryson pachycaulon, Aichryson parlatorei, Aichryson punctatum, Aichryson tortuosum, Monantheds adenoscepes, Monanthes amydros, Monanthes anagensis, Monanthes brachycaulon, Monanthes icterica, Monanthes laxiflora, Monanthes lowei, Monanthes pallens, Monanthes polyphylla, Aeonium glandulosum, Aeonium glutinosum, Aeonium x meyerheymii, Andryala crithmifolia, Crepis andryaloides, Galium productum, Matthiola maderensis, Micromeria thymoides subsp. thymoides var. cacuminicolae, Monizia edulis, Musschia aurea, Plantago leiopetala, Saxifraga maderensis var. maderensis, Saxifraga maderensis var. pickeringii, Sedum brissemoretii, Sedum farinosum, Sedum fusiforme, Sedum nudum, Sinapidendron angustifolium, Sinapidendron frutescens, Sinapidendron gymnocalyx, Sinapidendron rupestre, Sonchus ustulatus subsp. maderensis, Sonchus ustulatus subsp. ustulatus, Tolpis macrorhiza, Aichryson divaricatum, Aichryson dumosum, Aichryson villosum, Monanthes lowei
Subtype 2#
Davallia canariensis, Polypodium interjectum, Polypodium macaronesicum, Polypodium azoricum, Polypodium cambricum, Polypodium x fontqueri, Sellaginela denticulata, Asplenium hemionitis, Saxifraga portosanctanae, Annogramma leptophylla, Cystopteris viridula, Woodwardia radicans, Cystopteris diaphana, Sellaginela azorica, Thelypteris pozoi, Asplenium monanthes
Subtype #3
Asplenium adiantum-nigrum, Asplenium septentrionale, Asplenium trichomanes subsp. trichomanes, Asplenium trichomanes subsp. maderensis, Cheilanthes acrostica, Cheilanthes tinaei, Cosentinia vellaea subsp. bivalens, C. vellaea subsp. vellaea, Cheilanthes guanchica. Cheilantes maderensis, Notholaena marantae subsp. maranthae, Adiantum reniforme subsp. pusillum, A. reniforme subsp. reniforme, Asplenium aethiopicum subsp. aethiopicum, Asplenium aethiopicum subsp. braitwaitii, Asplenium monanthes, Cheilanthes pulchella, Notholaena maranthae subsp. cupripaleacea, Notholaena maranthae subsp. subcordata.
Subtype #4.
Macaronesian endemics: Tolpis suculenta, Hypericum x inodorum, Ceterach lolegnamense, Sonchus ustulatus subsp. maderensis, Sonchus ustulatus subsp. ustulatus; most frequent dominant cosmopolitans: Anthirrhinum majus, Chelidonium majus, Cymbalaria muralis, Cyrthomium falcatum, Erigeron karvinskianus, Parietaria judaica, Sonchus tenerrimus, Asplenium trichomanes subsp. quadrivalens, Trachelium caeruleum, Asplenium marinum, Centranthus ruber, Hyoscyamus albus, Umbilicus rupestris.
Mosses (any subtype):
Bartamia stricta, Exormotheca pustulosa, Pterogonium gracile, Reiboulia hemisphaerica, Frullania polistycha, Porella canariensis, Frullania microphylla, Corcenia coriandrena, Targionia hypophylla (incomplete).

Classification:
EUNIS
H3.3 Macaronesian inland cliffs
EuroVegChecklist
Soncho acaulis- Aeonion
Greenovion aureae
Aichryso laxi-Monanthion laxiflorae
Sinapidendro angustifolii-Aeonion glutinosi
Polypodion serrati (includes Sellaginelo denticulatae-Annogramion leptophyllae)
Thelipterido pozoi-Woodwardion radicantis
Cheilanthion pulchellae
Cymbalario-Asplenion
Galio valantiae-Parietarion judaicae
Asplenion marini
Annex 1:
8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation
Emerald:
No relationship
MAES-2:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
Rocky areas [e.g. inland cliffs, mountain peaks]

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
All subtypes, except #4, are defined by strict Macaronesian endemics, some even at the genus level (e.g. Aeonium p.max.p., Monanthes, Greenovia). Especially subtype #1 (late-deciduous rosette Crassulaceae) is a unique vegetation, exclusive of Macaronesian islands.

Trends in Quantity:
Trends in past (50 years time span), actual and future are reported by territorial experts and taken by assesors as 'stable'.

Trends in Quality:
Actual, past (50 years) or future trends area apreciated as 'stable' or in worst case scenario as unknow extent affected by ´slight -0,3 severity.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
100% of the habitat type lies within the EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
There is no evidence of relevant regression in habitat's area.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat does not have a 'small' range due to EEO >50.000 Km2 and AOO>50 10x10 Km gridsquares. The AOO however, is only slightly higher than the 50 grid cell threshold for criterion B2.

Pressures and Threats:
Main threats are mountaineering & rock climbing,  outdoor sports and leisure activities and construction of infrastructures such as roads and  motorways.

Conservation and Management:
Conservation of inland cliffs depends on adoption of legal planning instruments, restricting the disturbance or use of cliffs either for sport/touristic activities and avoidance of destruction by construction of infrastructures such as roads.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Recovering of this vegetation type will be uncertain, slow and only if environmental conditions (habitat) are again met. Eventually it may slowly establish from nearby populations, if these exist. Absence of nitrates, shade (in the subtypes under shade), elimination of competing vegetation and substratum recovery would be needed (active potential habitat recovery).

Summary:
The perennial vegetation of crevices and ledges of cliff faces in Macaronesia away from coastal salt-spray is of very diverse character - some, for example, dominated by succulents, others rich in ferns and bryophytes characteristic of shaded situations - and it includes several hundreds of taxa endemic to the archipelagoes. The main threats are mountaineering and rock climbing, outdoor sports and leisure activities, and construction of infrastructures such as roads and motorways.

References:
CAPELO, J., J. C. COSTA, M. LOUSÃ, S. FONTINHA, R. JARDIM, M. SEQUEIRA & S. RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ (2000).
Vegetação da Madeira (Portugal): aproximação à tipologia fitossociológica. Silva Lusitana 7(2) : 257 – 279.
CAPELO, J., M. SEQUEIRA, R., JARDIM, S. MESQUITA & J. C. COSTA (2005) The vegetation of Madeira Island
Portugal). A brief overview and excursion guide. Quercetea 7: 105 -122
COSTA, J.C., C.NETO, C. AGUIAR, J. CAPELO, M.D. ESPÍRITO-SANTO, J. HONRADO, C. PINTO-GOMES, T.
MONTEIRO-HENRIQUES, M. SEQUEIRA & M. LOUSÃ (2012) Vascular Plant Communities in Portugal (continental, Azores & Madeira) Global Geobotany 2: 1 -180.
COSTA, J.C., J. CAPELO, R. JARDIM, M. SEQUEIRA, D. ESPÍRITO-SANTO, M. LOUSÃ, S. FONTINHA, C. AGUIAR &
S. RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ in CAPELO, J. (ed.) (2004) Catálogo sintaxonómico e florístico das comunidades vegetais da Madeira e Porto Santo. Quercetea 6: 61-186.
RIVAS-MARTÍNEZ, S., W. WILDPRET, M. DEL ARCO, O. RODRÍGUEZ, P.L. PÉREZ DE PAZ, A. GARCIA-GALLO,
J.R. ACEBES, T.E. DÍAZ & F. FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ (1993) – Las comunidades vegetales de la Isla de Tenerife (Islas Canarias). Itinera Geobotanica 7: 169-374.

Criterion A Text:
No past decline ihas been reported, and territorial experts and assessors estimate a stable condition. Also, it is expected that the area remains stable in the future. Long-term historical changes are unknown.

Criterion B Text:
The AOO values are not much higher than the thresholds for B2, but stability is assumed for the past (50 years) and future time-frame and no serious threats are envisaged, for both B1 and B2 criteria. The habitat exists at many locations.

Criterion C/D Text:
Some influence of actual threats are assumed (see Pressures and Threats) due to road building and leisure/touristic activities, and therefore a slight severity (30%) in an unknown (but relatively small) proportion of the habitat is assumed.

Synthesis:
There is no evidence of significant past reductions, either in the last 50 years or historically, and also future prospects are good, as no serious threats are envisaged, besides touristic/leisure activities and putative faulty environmental impact assessments that may overlook this habitat as valuable. Reduction in quantity, reduction in quality and criteria of geographic distribution yield the Least Concern (LC) category. In spite of the LC category, conservation policy and management should restrict to the maximum any threat to or reduction of the habitat, as it has a very high conservation value, because of high endemism of species and communities with many local and regional variaties.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Four general subtypes can be distinguished based on species composition and different ecological conditions. However, at present, no data are available to carry out an individual assessment of each of them. In the future, if detailed plot sampling has

Contributors:
Habitats Definition: J. Capelo
Territorial data: J. Loidi, J. Capelo, D. Espírito Santo (with Miguel Sequeira and Roberto Jardim as advisors).
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso Del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
A5.53 Seagrass beds on Atlantic infralittoral sand (non-Macaronesian)

Habitat Description:
This habitat type covers beds of submerged marine angiosperms in the genera Zostera, Ruppia, and Cymodocea, adjacent to mainland coasts of the North East Atlantic region. The Iberian coast is a transitional zone where Zostera dominated seagrass beds reach their southern limit and Cymodocea dominated seagrass beds reach their northern and western limits. Ruppia beds are restricted to brackish environments, where Zostera may be interspersed. Seagrass beds play an important role in the trophic status of marine and estuarine waters, acting in sediment stabilization as well as an important conduit or sink for nutrients and consequently some examples of Zostera marina beds have markedly anoxic sediments associated with them.  It is a spawning area and it harbours increased densities of juvenile and medium sized fish species.
This habitat occurs in shallow sublittoral sediments, generally in sheltered embayments, marine inlets, estuaries and lagoons, with weak tidal currents and under conditoins of low, variable and full salinity. Whilst generally found on muds and muddy sands, particularly marine examples of Zostera communities may also occur in coarser sediments. Whilst the seagrass may be considered an epibiotic overlay of established sedimentary communities it is likely that its presence will modify the community offering living space and feeding ground for epibionts and phytal specialists. For example, Zostera beds in the south-west of Britain may contain conspicuous and distinctive assemblages of Lusitanian fauna such as Laomedea angulata, Hippocampus spp. and Stauromedusae. These subtidal beds of Zostera contain the specific perennial variant of Zostera marina. Cymodocea nodosa forms large and dense patches with green leaves that can reach 100 cm long and 8 mm wide in well shorted fine sands or on superficial muddy sands in sheltered waters and depths of 1-30 meters. Frequently it is mixed with other habitat forming phanerogams Zostera noltei (formerly known as Z.noltii or Z.nana) and Zostera marina on muddy sands rich in organic nutrients. Shallow meadows of Cymodocea and Zostera are usually found in sheltered bays close to harbours or in areas subject to human impact.
Indicators of Quality
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
The overall quality and continued occurrence of this habitat is, largely dependent on the presence of Zostera marina, which creates the biogenic structural complexity on which the characteristic associated communities depend. The density and the maintenance of a viable population of this species is a key indicator of habitat quality, together with the visual evidence of presence or absence of physical damage. Seasonal and annual variations in shoot densities and canopy height can be used to evaluate habitat quality as well as acting as a proxy measure of habitat complexity and refuge capability. The vertical depth limit of submerged seagrass is used in several countries as a Water Framework Directive parameter for assessing ecological status. Other countries use area indices and/or density indices. Seagrass tissue nutrients have also been used as indicators of environmental change in these important ecosystems.
Characteristic species
For the genus Zostera, Zostera marina is the dominating species for submersed beds. It is current consensus that Z. angustifolia, which is often described in older literature is simply an ecotype of Z. marina; following recent genetic studies, Z. angustifolia is no longer accepted as a separate species and is represented as Z. marina L. (WoRMS, 2014). Other biota present are grazing snails, hydrozoans, infaunal species such as Ensis spp., Cerastoderma spp. and Echinocardium cordatum. For Ruppia either Ruppia maritima or Ruppia cirrhosa may occur. In submerged beds of brackish seas, sea inlets, estuaries, permanent pools of mud or sand flats, and coastal lagoons of Atlantic, North Sea and Baltic coasts of boreal and temperate Europe Zannichellia palustris, Chara spp., Lamprothamnium papulosum and Tolypella nidifica can be associated with Ruppia and/or Zostera. These beds may be populated by fish such as Gasterosteus aculeatus, which is less common on filamentous algal-dominated sediments. Seaweeds such as Chaetomorpha spp., Enteromorpha spp., Cladophora spp., and Chorda filum are often present in addition to occasional fucoids. Infaunal and epifaunal species may include mysid crustacea, the polychaete Arenicola marina, the gastropod Hydrobia ulvae, the amphipod Corophium volutator and oligochaetes such as Heterochaeta costata.  For Cymodocea beds, Cymodocea nodosa is the only species represented.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Sublittoral macrophyte-dominated sediment’ (A5.5).
 
Annex 1:
1110 Sandbanks slightly covered all the time
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
 
MAES: 
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral coarse sediment
Shallow sublittoral sand
Shallow sublittoral mud
Shallow sublittoral mixed sediment
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow sands
Shallow muds
Shallow coarse or mixed sediments
 
IUCN:
9.9 Seagrass (submerged)

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat occurs across the regional sea where there are suitable conditions. It is present as far south as estuaries of Atlantic Spain, as far west as the west coast of Ireland and east to Kattegat.

Trends in Quantity:
There was a substantial reduction in the quantity of this habitat following the wasting disease, which affected subtidal seagrass beds in northern Europe in the 1930's. In the Netherlands and Germany 100% of the habitat was lost. In Denmark the decline between 1901 and 2000 is estimated to have been 92% and the deep eelgrass beds have never recovered to their previous extent. The depth limits along open coasts averaged 7-8 m around 1900, they presently average 4-5 m. Depth limits have continued to decrease over this period despite a general reduction in nutrient loading and a stabilization in nutrient concentrations in coastal waters. 
Whilst there has been some local recovery this habitat has not recovered to its previous extent. There are also variations across the region. In the Swedish Skagerrak, for example there has been a 60% decline since the mid-1980's while the small beds in the Chausey Archipelago, France are showing some increases after the mid-1950's. 
The situation in Norway (EU 28+) is that there has been recovery in the 1950's and 1960's except for a temporary decrease in the late 1980's.

Trends in Quality:
There has been a substantial historical decline in the quality of this habitat associated with wasting disease in the 1930's. More recently there have been different trends in different locations but overall quality is still considered to be decreasing. In the British Isles, for example, a recent study clearly indicates that many seagrass meadows  are under anthropogenic stress and probably in a poor state of health, many of which are in sites of apparent conservation protection.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat is present in Norway where a review of data up to 2010 estimated there to be more than 3,300 meadows with a total cover of 50km2 on the Skagerrak coast of Norway. In comparison the habitat covered more than 1,680km2 in Denmark in 2004 so it is likely that more than 95% is hosted by EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat has a large natural range, as it is present in locations as widely separated as the Atlantic coast of Portugal, the Isles of Scilly in the UK, and the Channel coast of France.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat has a large natural range, as it is present in locations as widely separated as the Atlantic coast of Portugal, the Isles of Scilly in the UK, and the Channel coast of France.

Pressures and Threats:
Wasting disease in the 1930's has been the most significant threat leading to substantial loss of this habitat. Historically Zostera was also of great commercial value, being harvested for use in dikes, World War I trenches, insulation and mattresses. Current pressures and threats come from coastal development, dredging, shellfisheries, eutrophication and localised damage from mooring.

Conservation and Management:
The protection of this habitat is often incorporated into to legislation aimed at protection of seagrass beds. These range from local by-laws and regulations, to cross border agreements as in the case of the Wadden Sea. Protected areas and management measures include the regulation of fisheries and, waste water treatment (to reduce the risk of eutrophication) and reduction in suspended sediments.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Recovery requires the removal of threats in the first instance. Recoverability rates can vary with shelter, light levels, depth and substratum but also depends on scale of damage and whether there have been changes in the environmental conditions (e.g. water flow, substrate type). Regeneration from root systems is slow and recovery of entire beds, with characteristic structure and associated species will take much longer than re-establishment of the seagrass species.  Anchoring rhizome fragments appears to be more successful than using seeds. Transplantation experiments have had limited success to date although recent analysis of restoration projects suggests the successful regrowth appears to required a minimum threshold of reintroduced introduced individuals so a critical mass is important. Recovery also appears to be more likely when transplantation is close to donor beds. Partial recovery is only likely to occur after about 10 years and full recovery may take over 25 years, or never occur.

Summary:
Seagrass beds play an important role in the trophic status of marine and estuarine waters, acting in sediment stabilization as well as an important conduit or sink for nutrients. The beds of seagrass occur in shallow sublittoral sediments. These communities are generally found in sheltered embayments, marine inlets, estuaries and lagoons, with weak tidal currents. Wasting disease in the 1930s has been the most significant threat leading to substantial loss of this habitat. Historically Zostera was also of great commercial value, being harvested for use in dikes, World War I trenches, insulation and mattresses.  Current pressures and threats come from coastal development, dredging, shellfisheries, eutrophication and localised damage from mooring. Conservation and management measures include the regulation of fisheries and  waste water treatment (to reduce the risk of eutrophication) and reduction in suspended sediments.

References:
Baden, S., Gullstrom, M., Lunden, B., Phil, L. & Rosenberg, R. 2003. Vanishing Seagrass (Zostera maria, L.) in Swedish coastal waters. Ambio 32(5): 374-377.
Bostrom, C. et al. 2014. Distribution, structure and function of Nordic eelgrass (Zostera marina) ecosystems: implications for coastal management and conservation. Aquatic conservation 24(3): 410-434. 
Borum, J., Duarte, C. M, Krause-Jensen, D & Greve, T. M. (Eds). 2004. European seagrasses: an introduction to monitoring and management. EU project Monitoring and Managing of European Seagrasses (M&MS). Available at: http://www.seagrasses.org/handbook/european_seagrasses_high.pdf. (Accessed: 12/02/2016). 
Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N. et al. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 04.05 JNCC. [online] Peterborough: ISBN 1 861 07561 8. Available at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/04_05_introduction.pdf. (Accessed: 30/08/2014).
Cunha, A. H. & Serrão, E. A.2011Tools for seagrass conservation and management in Portugal. Ecologia: 322-34.
de Jonge, V. N. & Ruiter, J. F. 1996. How subtidal were the subtial beds of Zostera marina L. before the occurrrence of the wasting disease in the early 1930's?Netherlands. J.Aquatic Ecology 30(2-3): 99-106.
Dennison, W. C. & Kirkman, H. 1996. Seagrass survival model. Seagrass Biology: Proceedings of an International Workshop p341-344.
Dolch, T., Buschbaum, C., Reise, K.2009. Seegras-Monitoring im Schleswig-Holsteinischen Wattenmeer 2008. Forschungsbericht zur Bodenkartierung ausgewählter SeegrasbeständeMonitoring report for the Federal Authority for Agriculture, Environment and Rural Areas of Schleswig-Holstein (LLUR). Available at: http://www.schleswig-holstein.de/DE/Fachinhalte/M/meeresschutz/Downloads/Seegras_Bericht_2008.pdf. (Accessed: 12/02/2016). 
European Environment Agency, (2014) EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 22/08/2014). 
Frederiksen, M., Krause-Jensen, D. Holmer, M. & Laursen, J.S. 2004. Long term changes in area distribution of eelgrass (Zostera marina) in Danish coastal waters. Aquatic Botany 78: 167-181.
Garcíia-Marin, P. Cabaço, S. Hernández, I. et al. 2013. Multi-metric index based on seagrass Zostera noltii (ZoNI) for ecological quality assessment of coastal and estuarine systems in SW Iberian Peninsula. Marine Pollution Bulletin 15(68):46-54.
Godet, L., Fournier, J., van Katwijk, M. M., Olivier, F., Le Mao, P., and Retière, C. 2008. Before and after wasting disease in common eelgrass Zostera marina along the French Atlantic coasts: a general overview and first accurate mapping. Diseases Aquatic Organisms 79:249-255.
Goodwin, C. et al. 2011. Rathlin Island - A survey Report from the Nationally Important Marine Features Project 2009-2011. Northern Ireland Environment Agency Research & Development Series No.11/03.
Hiscock, K., Marshall, C., Sewell, J. & Hawkins, S.J. 2006. The structure and functioning of marine ecosystems: an evironmental protection and management perspective. English Nature Research Reports. No.699.
James, B. 2004. North-west Scotland subtidal seagrass bed survey 2004. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 076 (ROAME No.F04LB05).
Jones, B.L., Unsworth, R.K.F. 2016. The perilous state of seagrass in the British Isles. R.Soc.open.sci 3: 2054-5703. 
van Katwijk, M.M, Thorhaug, A., Marba, N. et al. 2015. Global analysis of seagrass restoration: the importance of large-scale planting. J.Applied Ecology 53(2): 567-578. 
Marine Institute. 2015. Irelands Marine Atlas. Available at: http://www.marine.ie/Home/site-area/data-services/interactive-maps/irelands-marine-atlas. (Accessed: 08/12/2015). 
Martin, P. et al. 2010. Long-term evolution (1988-2008) of Zostera spp. meadows in Arcachon Bay (Bay of Biscay). Est.Coastal & Shelf Sci 87(2): 357-366.
OSPAR. 2009. Background Document for Zostera beds, Seagrass beds. Southampton: OSPAR Biodiversity Series, p.36.   
OSPAR. 2010. Background Document for Cymodocea meadows. Southampton: OSPAR Biodiversity Series, p.30. 
Quintas, P., et al. 2012. Checkist of molluscs and polychaetes associated to the Zostera marina and Zostera noltei meadows in Ensenada de O Grove (Galicia, NW spain). Biol.R.Soc.Esp.Hist.Nat.Sec.Biol 106: 113-126.
WoRMS. 2014. World Register of Marine Species. Available at: http://www.marinespecies.org. (Accessed: 12/12/2015).

Criterion A Text:
There has been a substantial historical decline in the quantity of this habitat. For example in the German part of the greater North Sea all known locations were destroyed and have not recovered since the 1930's and the same is true for the Netherlands sublittoral seagrass beds. Danish sublittoral eelgrass meadows declined by around  92%  between 1901 and 2000 and the deep eelgrass beds and have never recovered to their previous extent. The depth limits along open coasts averaged 7-8 m around 1900, they presently average 4-5 m. Depth limits have continued to decrease over this period despite a general reduction in nutrient loading and a stabilization in nutrient concentrations in coastal waters.This habitat has therefore been assessed as Critically Endangered under criterion A for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region as it is present in locations as widely separated as the Atlantic coast of Portugal, the Isles of Scilly in the UK, and the Channel coast of France. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000 km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. The current trend is declining in quanty and quality although the distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
In the last 50 years there have been improvements as well declines in quality of this habitat in the North East Atlantic. Overall a substantial decline in quality is believed to have occurred historical given the substantial losses (>90%) of this habitat. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Critically Endangered under criteria C/D3 for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion E Text:
The risk exists but no quantitative data or estimates of risk of collapse can be made at the present time.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region, as it is present in locations as widely separated as the Atlantic coast of Portugal, the Isles of Scilly in the UK, and the Channel coast of France. There was a substantial reduction in the quantity and quality in the 1930s, which resulted in 100% loss in the Netherlands and most likely the same in Germany. In Denmark the decline between 1901 and 2000 is estimated to have been 92%. There have been some increases in recent years but this habitat has not recovered to its previous extent. Because of the substantial historical loss and continuing declines in this habitat it has been assessed as Critically Endangered for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Z. marina beds and those dominated by either Ruppia spp. or Cymodocea should be assessed separately as these species respond in different ways to pressures and threats.


Habitat Type Name:
A5.53 Seagrass beds on Atlantic infralittoral sand (Macaronesian)

Habitat Description:
This habitat consists of beds of submerged marine angiosperms in the genera Cymodocea, Halophila, Ruppia, Thalassia and Zostera in the southern islands of Macaronesia (it does not occur in the Azores). Seagrass beds are present mainly off the sheltered eastern coasts of the Canary Islands (Spain), on the wide subtidal platforms with sandy substrata and gently sloping coastlines which are sheltered from the Trade Winds. They may occur in patches or form extensive meadows reaching depths of over 30m where light levels are sufficient to support growth. C. nodosa has also been reported in scattered locations along the southern coast of Madeira Island (Portugal). In the Canary Islands, C.nodosa can be found forming unispecific meadows, but also mixed with Halophila decipiens on muddy bottoms or with the green macroalga Caulerpa prolifera on sandy bottoms.
Marine seagrass meadows are very important in providing several ecological services, such as primary production, habitats, nurseries and coastal protection. Primary productivity may vary, depending on many factors such as the density of the meadow, geographic area or hydrologic factors. These ecosystems are one of the most important habitats for several marine organisms, which depend on them in different phases of their life cycle, not only to feed but also to take shelter from predators.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time. There are no commonly agreed
indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis. Total area covered, density of the intertidal beds and species composition is, for example, used as a Water Framework Directive parameter for assessing ecological status.
The overall quality and continued occurrence of this habitat is dependent on the presence of seagrass species which create the biogenic structural complexity on which the characteristic associated species depend. The density and the maintenance of a viable population of seagrass is therefore a key indicator of habitat quality, together with the visual evidence of presence or absence of physical damage. Shoot density and leaf length have both been examined as potential indicators of quality of this habitat.
Characteristic species:
C.nodosa, and H. decipiens are the most common seagrass species. Zostera marina is present and Z. noltei occurs but is rare and intertidal.

Classification:
EUNIS (2004):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Sublittoral macrophyte-dominated sediment’ (A5.5)
 
Annex 1:
1110 Sandbanks which are slightly covered by seawater all the time
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
 
MAES: 
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral coarse sediment
Shallow sublittoral sand
Shallow sublittoral mixed sediment
 
EUSeaMap: 
Shallow sands
Shallow coarse or mixed sediments
 
IUCN:
9.9 Seagrass submerged

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This is a relatively rare habitat in Macaronesia. It is not present in the Azores, and is present as small patches in Madeira. All other records are from the Canary Islands.

Trends in Quantity:
A compliation of all published data including three structural descriptors (seagrass shoot density, cover and leaf length of C.nodosa) at any place in the Canary Islands between 1991 and 2013 covered a total of 87 meadows at 6 islands of the Canarian Archipelago. Coverage was estimated as the percentage of the area in which the presence of C.nodosa was detected typically through 25 or 50m long transects. Over this time period there were no significant temporal patterns at El Hierro and Gomera, and decreases in coverage at Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria and Tenerife.
At the present time C.nodosa beds are present in a few areas on the south coast of Madeira (covering a total area less than 1km2). The dense meadows in the bay of Machico, recorded in 2000 have disappeared but there is still a bed in the bay of Cais do Carvao. Subtidal Zostera beds have always had a very restricted occurrence in the Canarian Archipelago with just three small patches in a single harbour in Lanzarote. They were present in  Grand Canaria in the 1970's but this is no longer the case.

Trends in Quality:
There has been an overall decline in quality of this habitat as indicated by four metrics (shoot density, biomass, leaf length and coverage) in a study of changes in the demographic structure of C.nodosa seagrass meadows in the Canary Islands over the last 23 years. The dense meadows of C.nodosa in Machico Bay, Madeira have disappeared since 2000. The H.decipiens beds in Tenerife showed an initial increase in leaf length in the vicinity of fish cages but then a rapid decrease.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
100% as this is defined as a Macaronesian habitat although similar habitats occur elsewhere e.g. Cymodosa meadows in scattered locations in the North Atlantic from southern Portugal and Spain to Senegal, and Zostera marina beds in northern Europe.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
There has been a significant decline in range of this habitat during the last 50 years but the EOO still exceeds 50,000km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
There has been a significant decline in range of this habitat during the last 50 years however the EOO still exceeds 50,000km2

Pressures and Threats:
Coastal development including port developments, and waste disposal, particularly sewage discharges are the main pressures on this habitat. In the case of C.nodosa the causes of epiphytic growth of Lyngbya sp over C. nodosa communities are not still clear. The blooms of this cyanobacteria  are ephemeral and probably related to a mix of natural and anthropogenic origins.

Conservation and Management:
Regulation of activities (such as coastal development, dredging, waste disposal) and zoning to ensure that aquaculture facilities are located away from this habitat are useful management measures.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
1110: MMAC U1
1160: MMAC FV
Cymodocea meadows and Zostera beds are an OSPAR threatened/declining habitat type
Cymodocea was previously protected under regional regulation in the Canary Is

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Recovery can occur if conditions are suitable but will depend on depth, substratum and the scale of the damage. If damage is minor natural recovery may be possible but if there is more extensive damage or loss, intervention may be needed. A small scale pilot project to transplant healthy C.nodosa affected by port expansion in Fuerteventura was considered unsuccessful and recent work suggests that there may be a critical mass of transplants needed for recovery and that proxmity of the area selected for transplantation  to donor beds is also beneficial.

Summary:
This habitat comprises beds of submerged marine angiosperms in the genera Cymodocea, Halophila, Ruppia, Thalassia and Zostera occuring on the more sheltered, eastern and southern coasts of the southern islands (Madeira and Canary Islands) in Macaronesia. Marine seagrass meadows are very important in providing several ecological services, such as primary production, habitats, nurseries and coastal protection. Primary productivity may vary, depending on many factors such as the density of the meadow, geographic area or hydrologic factors. These ecosystems are one of the most important habitats for several marine organisms, which depend on them in different phases of their life cycle, not only to feed but also to take shelter from predators.
Coastal development including port developments, and waste disposal, particularly sewage discharges are the main pressures on this habitat. In the case of C.nodosa. The causes of epiphytic growth of Lyngbya sp over C. nodosa communities are not still clear. The blooms of this cyanobacteria  are ephemeral and probably related to a mix of natural and anthropogenic origins. Regulation of activities (such as coastal development, dredging, waste disposal) and zoning of aquaculture facilities away from this habitat are useful management measures for this habitat. In some cases they may be introduced within protected areas.

References:
Araújo, R., Maranhão, Gonçalves, S. J. J. & Kaufmann, M. 2012. Seagrass meadow of Cymodocea nodosa at south coast of Madeira Island - a priority habitat in the EU Habitat Directive. Conference poster.
Candelaria Gil-Rodrigues, M. Arco, M. Torre, W. et al. 2007. Biological information and comments on Halophila decipiens meadows on the Canary Islands (Hydrocharitaceae, Magnoliophyta). Vieraea 35: 77-85.
Diekmann, O. E., Gouveia, L., Perez, J. A. et al 2010. The possible origin of Zostera noltii in the Canary Islands and guidelines for restoration. Marine Biology 157(9): 2109-2115.
Espino, F., Tuya, F.,  Blanch, I. & Haroun R. J. 2008. Los sebadales en Canarias. Oasis de vida en los fondos arenosos. Las Palmas: 68 BIOGES, Universidad de Las Palmas.
Fabbri, F., Espino, F., Herrera, R et al. 2015. Trends of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa (Magnoliophyta) in the Canary Islands: population changes in the last two decades. Scientia Marina 79(1): 7-13.
Gil-Rodriguez, C., Machín-Sánchez, M., Manue, l. C. P., Bacallado-Aránega, J., Moro-Abad, L. & Alemany Tejera, J. M. 2012. Las praderas de Nanozostera noltii (Hornemann) Tomlinson & Posluszny en Canarias: redescubrimiento de poblaciones y su evolución en los últimos veinticinco años (Zosteraceae ). Vieraea 40: 45-64.
van Katwijk, M. M., Thorhaug, A., Marba, N. et al., 2015. Global analysis of seagrass restoration:the importance of large-scale planning. J. Applied Ecology 53(2): 567-578.
OSPAR. 2010. Background Document for Cymodocea meadows.Southampton: OSPAR Biodiversity Series.
Pavón-Salas, N., Herrera, R., Hernández-Guerra, A. & Haroun, R. 2000. Distributional patterns of seagrasses in the Canary Islands (Central-East Atlantic Ocean). Journal of Coastal Research 16(2): 329-335.
Rumeu Ruiz, B., Pérez Pérez, J. A., Ferrer, H., Aldanondo-Aristizabal N & Gil-Rodríguez C2007CaracterizacioÌn geneÌtica de Zostera noltii (Zosteraceae, Magnoliophyta) en Lanzarote, islas Canarias. Vieraea 35: 33-42.
Tuya, F., Martin, J. A. & Luque, A. 2002. Impact of a marina construction on a seagrass bed at Lanzarote (Canary Islands). Journal of Coastal Conservation 8: 157-162.
Tuya, F., Ribeiro-Leite, L., Arto-Cuesta, N., Coca, J., Haroun. R. & Espino, F. 2014. Decadal changes in the structure of Cymodocea nodosa seagrass meadows: Natural vs. human influences. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 137: 41-49.
Tuya, F., Hernandez-Zerpa, H., Espino, F. & Haroun, R., 2013. Drastic decadal decline of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa at Gran Canaria (eastern Atlantic): Interactions with the green algae Caulerpa prolifera. Aquatic botany 105: 1-6.
Zarranz, M., Luque, A., Manent, P., Radmani, M. & Robiana, R. R. 2014. Combined genetic and habitat characterization as a management tool for Zostera noltii seagrass populations along the Atlantic Moroccan Coast. Marrakech: 2nd International Congress of Plant Biodiversity.

Criterion A Text:
A compliation of all published data including three structural descriptors (seagrass shoot density, cover and leaf length of C.nodosa) at any place in the Canary Islands between 1991 and 2013 covered a total of 87 meadows at 6 islands of the Canarian Archipelago. Over this time period there were no significant temporal patterns at El Hierro and Gomera, and decreases in coverage at Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria and Tenerife.
Expert opinion is that there has been an overall decline in quantity of this habitat of more than 30% in the last 50 years although declines in the last 20 years have been more severe (greater than 50%). This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion A1.

Criterion B Text:
There have been and are likely to be future declines in the quantity and quality of this habitat however as EOO >50,000 km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
There has been an overall decline in quality of this habitat as indicated by four metrics (shoot density, biomass, leaf length and coverage) in a study of changes in the demographic structure of C.nodosa seagrass meadows in the Canary Islands over the last 23 years. Expert opinion is that there has been a substantial reduction in quality of this habitat over the last 50 years (severe decline affecting more than 30% of the extent). This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable under Criteria C/D1.

Criterion E Text:
A risk of collapse does exist however this has not been quantified.

Synthesis:
This habitat does not have a restricted geographical distribution but it has suffered declines in both quantity and quality over the last 50 years. The dense meadows of C.nodosa in the bay of Machico last recorded in 2000, are now absent with C.nodosa currently only present in a few areas on the south coast of Madeira covering a total area less than 1km2.  Subtidal Zostera beds have always had a very restricted occurrence in the Canarian Archipelago with just three small patches in a single harbour in Lanzarote. They did occur in Grand Canaria in the 1970s but this is no longer the case. There has also been an overall decline in quality of this habitat as indicated by four metrics of the seagrass; shoot density, biomass, leaf length and coverage.
Expert opinion is that over the last 50 years the decline in quantity is estimated to have been over 30% and that the decline in quality has been substantial with a severe decline affecting more than 30% of the extent of this habitat. The Red List assessment is therefore that this is a Vulnerable habitat for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Zostera beds are in more serious condition and therefore would benefit from separate and further examination.

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group: S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F. Otero-Ferrer, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun, N. Sanders.


Habitat Description:
Polar deserts comprise stone- and gravel-dominated areas north of or at elevations above the Arctic tundra zone where the vegetation cover is fragmentary owing to low temperatures and where woody plants and sedges are lacking. This is a circumpolar arctic habitat type that has in common with the ‘true deserts’ that precipitation is extreme low (< 200 mm yearly) and the vegetation growth period is very short. Around the Isfjord on Svalbard, an area very positively affected by the north atlantic current, the growing season for example is about 40-50 days. The habitat is characterized by extreme low summer temperatures (< 2 °C mean summer temperature, considered as the most important abiotic factor), shallow soils over permafrost (which is instable due to cryoturbation, causing honeycomb soil patterns), and little relief (resulting in low snow cover). Polar deserts consist of fine to medium coarse substrates resulting from frost weathering processes with particle sizes ranging from silt to gravel and stones. The sediment in most sites is calcium-rich, but acidic bedrock may occur as well. Polar deserts are restricted to continental areas influenced by cold sea currents from the Arctic Ocean.
The habitat has in general a very low vegetation cover (1-10%) or is in some areas completely free of plants. Species characteristic for Polar deserts are Cerastium nigrescens subsp. arcticum, C. regelii, Draba pauciflora, Luzula confusa, Papaver dahlianum, Phippsia algida, Saxifraga hyperborea and S. oppositifolia, which usually grow scattered. In between mosses and crustose lichens may be found in rock crevices; these are mainly wide-spread species. Locally, plant cover in Polar deserts may be increased owing to favourable abiotic conditions. For instance, at sites better protected from wind and frost, species like Stereocaulon rivulorum and Phippsia algida may be abundant. Increased nutrient input in areas colonized for long time by reindeer, like on the plateaus of Edgeøya, may enable an increased growth of byrophyte mats dominated by Tomentypnum nitens. Such areas, although in the climatic region of the polar desert, are considered Moss tundra habitat (F1.2). Some of the polar desert species (Luzula confusa, Papaver dahlianum, Phippsia algida) also grow in slightly warmer climates, in habitats with little competition with other species.
Polar deserts are typically found in the flat or slightly undulating lowlands and on mountain plateaus of eastern and northern Svalbard, and on glacier free parts of the Russian islands in the Barents Sea (Franz-Jozef-Land, Victoria islands and Nowaja Semlja). The mountains of these regions may have a similar plant species composition on scree habitats (type H2.1, H2.1). Moreover, Polar deserts occur all over Svalbard at elevations above 200 to 500 m a.s.l.  A difference with Moss and lichen tundra (F1.2) is the general lack of typical tundra species (e.g. Carex spp.) including woody species (e.g. Salix spp., Dryas octopetala and Silene acaulis).
Indicators of good quality: 
This is natural vegetation occurring in remote areas which are under limited human influence. It is generally rather stable, but may be threatened by global warming.
The following characteristics can be considered as indicators of good quality:
Long-term stability of low vegetation cover
Abundance of species sensitive to changes in soil moisture and temperature (like Draba adamsii, Cerastium regelii, Saxifraga hyperborea)
Absence of long living and slow colonizing species indicating global warming, like Silene acaulis, Dryas octopetala, Salix polaris and Festuca rubra ssp. richardsonii

Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Alopecurus alpinus, Cerastium nigrescens subsp. arcticum, Cerastium regelii, Draba adamsii, Draba corymbosa, Draba pauciflora, Luzula confusa, Papaver dahlianum (= P. polare), Phippsia algida, Poa arctica, Ranunculus sabinii  (Russia), Saxifraga cespitosa, Saxifraga hyperborea, Saxifraga oppositifolia
Mosses:  Andreaea blyttii, Andreaea rupestris, Aulacomnium palustre, Aulacomnium turgidum, Bryocaulon divergens, Dicranoweisia crispula, Dicranum elongatum, Drepanocladus cossonii, Orthothecium chryseon, Polytrichum spp., Sanionia uncinata, Tomentypnum nitens
Lichens: Alectoria ochroleuca, Allantoparmelia alpicola, Cetraria nivalis, Lecanora ssp., Lecidea ementiens, Ochrolechia frigida, Rhizocarpon spp., Stereocaulon rivulorum, Umbilicaria proboscidea, Usnea sphacelata

Classification:
EUNIS:
H5. Miscellaneous inland habitats with very sparse or no vegetation
(no clear relationship on EUNIS level 3)
EuroVeg Checklist (alliances):
Papaverion dahliani Hoffmann 1968 ex Daniëls et al. 2014
Saxifrago stellaris-Oxyrion digynae Gjaerevoll 1950 (partly)
Annex 1:
--
Emerald:
--
MAES-2:
Sparsely or unvegetated land
IUCN:
8.3 Cold desert

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is strictly bounded to the arctic biogeographic region of Svalbard and other islands in the arctic zone of Europe.

Map Description:
The map is likely to be complete. Data sources: BOHN.

Comment EU28+:
Johansen et al. 2009, Lindgaard & Henriksen 2011

Trends in Quantity:
It is expected that climate change will cause a decrease in the area of the habitat due to succession towards (shrub) tundra, even when on the other hand deglaciation actually may cause an increase in area. Overall the negative trend is expected to dominate: in the Norwegian Red List of Ecosystems experts consider the polar deserts to have the least buffering capacity to withstand the expected climatic changes (Lindgaard & Henriksen 2011). A large part of today's polar desert may lose its climatic basis within circa 30 years if climate changes as expected.

Trends in Quality:
No occurrence in the EU28. Past changes in the quality of this habitat type cannot be evaluated as data are missing.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
0% (No occurrence in EU 28), data known only from Norway (EU28+). Within the region covered by the Red List the habitat is restricted to Svalbard.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is restricted to Svalbard and faces future regression. The EOO and AOO are however larger than the thresholds for criterion B.

Pressures and Threats:
Polar deserts are extremely long-term survive habitats, as long as the environmental conditions are very stable. On the other hand, they are very sensitive to climate changes, pollution and mechanical disturbance like trampling, track vehicles or other human activities (coal mining around Svea, Longyearbyen and the Russian settlement of Barentsburg).  Climate change is the most serious threat to the habitat. It is expected that higher temperature causes changes in abiotic and biotic conditions. Expected abiotic changes are changes in soil moisture (hyrdrology) and temperature, expected biotic changes are a a low increase of stronger competitors.

Conservation and Management:
The protected areas now cover 65 % of the Svalbard land area. All known habitats, including polar deserts, are well represented in these areas, where regulations provide robust protection against any material impact on the natural landscape. Provisions for hunting in protected areas vary. Snowmobile driving is permitted in some national parks near settlements. As most of Svalbard is now largely free of human influence, the archipelago is of great value as a reference area for research on the effects of climate change, transboundary pollution and other large-scale environmental impacts.

Conservation Status:
There is no equivalent type of the Habitat's Directive Annex 1.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Only naturally. Recovery processes occur very slowly in the cold arctic climate.

Summary:
The circumpolar arctic habitat polar desert is characterized by extreme low summer temperatures, low precipitation and shallow, usually base-rich, soils over permafrost and flat or low undulating relief. Within the Red List area it is confined to Svalbard. The habitat is often totally bare or has at most a very sparse low cover of rosette plants growing among bryophytes and lichens. A light snow cover can encourage somewhat more extensive growth and areas with higher precipitation where reindeer graze and defaecate benefit from more moisture and nutrients. Climate warming is also seeing a slow increase of perennial species and shrubs.

References:
Aleksandrova, V.D. 1988. Vegetation of the Soviet polar deserts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 228 p.
Bohn, U. et al. 2003 (eds). Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas. Bundesambt für Naturschutz, Bonn, 655 p. 
Daniëls, F.J.A., A. Elvebakk, N.V. Matveyeva & L. Mucina (2015). The Drabo-Corymosae papaveretea dahliani – a new vegetation class of high arctic polar deserts. Hacquetia DOI: 10.1515/hacq-2015-0013
Dierssen, K. 1996. Vegetation Nordeuropas. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. 832 p.
Elvebakk, A. 1994. A survey of plant associations and alliances from Svalbard. Journal of Vegetation Science 5: 791-802.
Elvebakk , A. 2005. A vegetation map of Svalbard on the scale 1:3.5 mill. Phytocoenologia 35(4): 951-967.
HadaÄ, E. 1989. Notes on Plant Communities of Spitsbergen. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica, Praha 24: 131-169.
Johansen, B., Tommervik, H. and Karlsen, S.R., 2009. Vegetasjonskart over Svalbard. Dokumentasjon av metoder og vegetasjonsbeskrivelsen. NINA Rapport 456. 57 p.
Lindgaard, A. &Henriksen, S. 2011 (eds). The 2011 Norwegian Red list for ecosystems and habiat types. Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, Trondheim. 124 p.
Thannheiser, D. 1996. Spitzbergen. Geographische Rundschau 48(5): 268-274.

Criterion A Text:
The habitat is not present in the EU28. For Svalbard no data on recent or historical trends are available. It is not likely that large changes took place over the last 50 years, but this is not 100% sure. The area of the habitat is expected to decrease in future due to succession to other habitats, and on the other hand may profit from deglaciation. No quantitative data for future trends in area are available, however. Based on lack of good data of declines, the assessment of all criteria under A are Data Deficient.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has a relatively low AOO and EOO but they do not meet the criteria for Vulnerable under B1 and B2. The EOO is however small enough to be considered as ‘close to Vulnerable’. As there is a serious future threat (climate change) subcriterion (b) is met for B1, resulting in the category ‘Near Threatened’.

Criterion C/D Text:
The habitat is not present in the EU28. For Svalbard no information is available on present or historical changes in quality. However, the expected climate change (warming) will favour species that are more competitive, and cause a decline in – more typical – species. Such biotic and abiotic changes are likely to affect large areas of the habitat. They will proceed slowly and can be considered as a low impact in terms of severity. In quantitative terms the change is expected to be close to the Vulnerable thresholds (large extent, low severity). Possibly these thresholds will even be met, but there is no evidence for this, presently. The conclusion therefore is an assessment of Near Threatened (NT) under C/D2, and Data Deficient for other C and D criteria.

Synthesis:
No data on past trends in quantity and quality are available. However, for the near future it is expected that the habitat will decrease both in area and quality as a result of climate change. The relatively small EOO combined with a serious threat results in the category Near Threatened (NT) for criterion B1. The expected changes in quality results in the same category for criterion C/D2. The category Near Threatened is the same result as was given by experts in the Norwegian Red List of Ecosystems.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No sub-habitats have to be considered within this type.

Contributors:
Type description: J. Kapfer & J. Janssen
Territorial data: J. Kapfer
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: G. Giusso Del Galdo, F. Essl, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
Maerl is a collective term for various species of non-jointed coralline red algae (Corallinophycidae) that live unattached to the seabed. These species can form extensive beds, mostly on coarse clean gravel and clean sand or on muddy mixed sediments, either on the open coast, in tide-swept channels or in sheltered areas of marine inlets with weak current. Wave and current-exposed maerl beds, where thicker depths of maerl accumulate, frequently appear as waves and ridge-and-furrows arrangements. As maerl requires light to photosynthesize, the depth of live beds is determined by water turbidity, being recorded from the lower shore to depths of 40 m or more. Water movement also appears to be a key physical environmental factor affecting the distribution of maerl and hence the formation of maerl beds.
North East Atlantic maerl beds are typically composed of both living and dead maerl of varying proportions. Extensive maerl beds formed during the late Holocene sea level rise on the west facing Atlantic coastlines of the British Isles, Scandinavia, France and Spain. Some are believed to have been tens of kilometres across and several meters in thick. Maerl is slow growing with growth rates for presently existing free living maerl in northwest Spain and western Ireland have been calculated to vary from 0.10- 1.00 mm/yr and in Norway from 0.05 - 0.15 mm/yr or up to 1.0 mm/yr.
The fauna and flora associated with maerl beds often constitute highly diverse communities, which may be attached to the surface of the maerl, on areas of exposed sediment, between the interstices of both living and dead maerl, and within the underlying sediment. They include foliose and filamentous seaweeds, hydroids, bryozoans, gastropod and bivalve molluscs, anemones, echinoderms and polychaete worms. Beds typically support high numbers of macroalgal species, with 349 species recorded, representing around 30% of the total seaweed diversity of the NE Atlantic. Similarly, over 2,500 macrobenthic species have been found associated with NE Atlantic maerl beds which coincidentally constitute around 30% of the total number of coastal invertebrate species in the area.
The structural complexity of maerl beds are known to provide important nursery areas for fish and shellfish species such as cod and edible crustaceans at a critical phase in their life histories, as well as a refuge and feeding area for commercially important shellfish brood stock (e.g. Ensis spp, Pecten maximus and Venus verrucosa). There is some evidence to suggest that coralline algae produce physical and chemical cues that encourage the settlement and recruitment of planktonic juvenile stages of many invertebrate species, while providing the prospect of higher growth potential.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis. The overall quality and continued occurrence of this habitat is, however, largely dependent on the presence of coralline red algae which creates the biogenic structural complexity on which the characteristic associated communities depend. In the UK and France the proportion (%) of live maerl coverage is routinely used as a quality indicator for selected beds. The density and the maintenance of a viable population of maerl-forming species is a key indicator of habitat quality, together with the visual evidence of presence or absence of physical damage.
Other quality indicators currently being developed specifically for maerl beds include the detection of community shifts associated with quality decline (e.g. from clean maerl gravel with low silt and abundant suspension-feeding bivalves, to muddy sand dominated by deposit feeders and omnivores), the reduction in the thickness of live maerl cover, opportunist species dominance and overgrowth by the slipper limpet Crepidula fornicata.
Characteristic species:
Different maerl species dominate, depending on the conditions. In fully marine conditions the dominant maerl is typically Phymatolithon calcareum, under variable salinity conditions, such as in some sea lochs, it can be Lithothamnion glaciale, while under sheltered silty conditions Lithothamnion corallioides may dominate. In more muddy, sheltered and shallow conditions rare Lithophyllum spp. beds may form. An even rarer bed-forming occurrence of Mesophyllum sphaericum has been recorded in a single location in Galicia.
A number of species are known to form maerl (or rhodoliths) in the Macaronesian region. Neogoniolithon brassica-florida is present in sparse aggregations, but may constitute the dominant maerl species in current-swept coarse sands and fine gravels in the Azores, while Lithophyllum crouaniorum can be found on shallow infralittoral sands between 2 m and 5 m depth. Beds of Lithothamnion corallioides are present in the Canary Islands and Madeira from 20m down to 60 m and 50 m respectively, with the Madeira beds also characterized by the presence of Spongites fruticulosa.
 The particular mix of species present will be influenced by the sediment characteristics and degree of shelter of the maerl bed. A particular characteristic of maerl is the presence of a mixture of hard- and soft substrata-associated assemblages including shells and gravels or varous anchored algal species such as Gelidiella calcicola, Cruoria cruoriaeformis (mostly excusive to maerl), Dictyota dichotoma, Halarachnion ligulatum, Ulva spp. Callophyllis laciniata, Cryptopleura ramosa, Brongniartella byssoides, Phycodrys rubens and Plocamium cartilagineum. Other organisms such as the anemones (Anemonia viridis and Cerianthus lloydii); the polychaetes, (Chaetopterus variopedatus, Lanice conchilega, Kefersteinia cirrata, Hesione pantherina, Pilargis verrucosa, Psammolyce arenosa, Mediomastus fragilis, Chone duneri, Parametaphoxus fultoni, Notomastus latericeus, Caulleriella alata and Grania); the gastropods (Gibbula cineraria, Gibbula magus, Calyptraea chinensis, Alvania beani, Alvania cimicoides, Dikoleps pusilla and Onoba aculeus); and crustaceans (Liocarcinus depurator and Liocarcinus corrugatus) may be present together with numerous melitid amphipod species and often large numbers of Galathea intermedia and/or Pisidia longicornis. A diverse assemblage of crustaceans are also commonly present.
In tide-swept conditions with variability salinity, the associated fauna and flora may also include species that reflect the slightly reduced salinity conditions. For example Psammechinus miliaris is often present in high numbers along with other grazers such as chitons and Tectura spp. Hyas araneus, Ophiothrix fragilis and Ophiocomina nigra In more sheltered conditions, anemones typical of sheltered conditions may be found in close association with maerl, these may include; Anthopleura ballii, Cereus pedunculatus and Sagartiogeton undatus. Polychaetes such as Myxicola infundibulum and terebellids, also characteristic of sheltered conditions, may be present as may hydroids such as Kirchenpaueria pinnata. Occasional Chlamys varia and Thyone fusus are present in many habitat records together with red seaweeds such as Plocamium cartilagineum, Calliblepharis jubata and Chylocladia verticillata. In the Kattegat, fauna associated with maerl beds include crustaceans such as Corystes cassivelaunus and Thia scutellata, and echinoderms such as Ophiothrix fragilis and Ophiocomina nigra.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic shallow/infralittoral coarse sediment’ (A5.5).
 
Annex 1:
1110 Sandbanks which are slightly covered by seawater all the time
 
MAES:
Marine – Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral mixed sediment
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow coarse or mixed sediments
 
IUCN:
9.3 Subtidal loose rock/pebble/gravel
9.4 Subtidal sandy 
9.5 Subtidal sandy-mud 
 
Other relationships:
HELCOM HUB:
AA.D, AB.D. Baltic photic and aphotic maerl beds
 
French classification:
III.3.2.1. Faciès du Maerl (= Association à Lithothamnion corallioides et Phymatolithon calcareum) (peut aussi se rencontrer comme faciès de la biocénose du détritique côtier)
IV.2.2.2. Faciès du Maerl (Lithothamnion corallioides et Phymatholithon calcareum).

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Maerl beds are likely to have been much more prevalent in the past, so could have been typical of the North East Atlantic region

Map Description:
There are insufficient data to provide a comprehensive accurate map of the distribution of this habitat. This map has been generated using EMODnet data from modelled/surveyed records for the North East Atlantic (and supplemented with expert opinion where applicable) (EMODnet 2010). EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map. These should, however, be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this is not the full distribution of the habitat.

Trends in Quantity:
Historical declining trends have been reported for maerl beds in the UK, Ireland, and France. An overall declining trend is also apparent in the recent past, although variable across beds. For example in the UK the overall decline is probably of the order of 25% but in some regions such as the Firth of Clyde the decline represents more than 80%. There has also been a serious decline in the extent of the Galician maerl beds and maerl beds have been completely eliminated from some bays in the Brittany region of France, with an estimated 30% destroyed by clam dredging in the Bay of Brest.
The total spatial area covered by maerl beds is unknown. A few locations have, however, been mapped in detail.  For example, the area covered by maerl beds occurring in La Rochelle (Biscay Bay, France), Galicia and Algarve (Portugal) total cover approximately 27 km2.

Trends in Quality:
There has been a historical decline in live maerl cover and maerl habitat quality in the last 50 years and probably over longer periods of time as apparent from Galician and French maerl beds, which have been studied since the 1920s and 1898 respectively. In the UK in situ quantitative assessment and monitoring of live maerl extent has indicated that activities such as dredging (e.g. for soil conditioner or shipping channels), destructive fishing (e.g. with dredges or trawls) and fish farming has reduced the extent, complexity and biodiversity of these habitats over the past 50 years. This declining trend is predicted to continue as damaging fishing practices such as scallop dredging, and demersal trawls continue to degrade maerl habitats. Aquaculture is also having an impact on maerl habitat through localised contamination, organic enrichment, and eutrophication. The introduction of invasive non-indigenous species can also lead to the alteration maerl habitats through activities such as the movement of live oysters into waters adjacent to maerl beds.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat occurs in the EU 28+ (e.g. Norway). Percentage hosted by EU 28 is therefore less than 100% but there is insufficient information to establish the proportion.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
Although this habitat has declined in the last 50 years it does not have a small natural range as EOO>50,000km2

Justification of Restricted Area:
Although this habitat has declined in the last 50 years it does not have a small natural range as EOO>50,000km2

Pressures and Threats:
Commercial dredging in the recent past has beem a considerable threat to maerl beds. Extraction of both living and fossil deposits has severely depleted beds in the Fal Estuary in England, while commercial dredging of around 500,000 tonnes per annum from large beds in French waters, such as those off the Glénan Islands, has also caused irreversible damaged in this and other Breton maerl beds. Although dredging ceased here in 2011,at least four maerl beds in Brittany are known to have been completely destroyed by this activity.
As well as the direct effect of the physical removal of the maerl during extraction, there are other direct and indirect impacts from muddy plumes and sediment redistribution or suspension, caused by the dredging activity and coastal construction, which later settle out and smother associated and surrounding communities. The impact area from this pressure may extend up to 200 times the area of the extraction zone.
Eutrophication, organic enrichment and sedimentation from domestic, industrial or agricultural discharges and from aquaculture installations are an on-going threat. In the recent past in the Bay of Brest, maerl beds have been lost due to eutrophication, even if measures to reduce sewage discharges are likely to reduce this pressure in the near future. In Galicia, Spain, mussel farming has caused deterioration in maerl bed complexity and biodiversity through increased sedimentation. Eutrophication can indirectly cause further impacts, such as an increase in ephemeral algal biomass, smothering the maerl and sometimes resulting in the closure of the king scallop fishery which in turn encourages an increase in the more destructive clam fishery. Moreover, an increase in algal biomass at impacted sites may promote infestation by invasive alien species such as Crepidula fornicata, which can degrade associated communities through competition, and reduce abundance and diversity by building up accumulations of faeces, pseudofaeces and shell drifts.
Maerl thalli are fragile and so inherently susceptible to physical damage from abrasion, such as that originating from mobile demersal fishing gears. Maerl beds in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, first sampled in the 1880s, are known to have been broken up and destroyed by heavy towed fishing gear. Bivalve dredging currently remains one of the main threats to European maerl beds, with some French beds under increasing pressure from the intensification of clam (Venus verrucosa) fishing..

Conservation and Management:
Prohibiting the direct extraction of maerl would be of immediate benefit to this habitat. Other important conservation and management measures would be to stop the use of mobile demersal gears and other types of fishing activity where this habitat occurs because of the damaging effects of abrasion. Sufficient distance between maerl beds and aquaculture facilities is also important. Mussel aquaculture, for example contributes large amounts of fine sediment and detritus to the bottom, causing the burial and death of the maerl thalli by reduction of gas exchange around them.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
1110: MATL U2, MMAC U1
Maerl beds are identified as a threatened and/or declining habitat in all the OSPAR regions.
HELCOM has assessed Baltic photic maerl beds (AA.D) and Baltic aphotic maerl beds (AB.D) as EN (B1+2a(ii))</p

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
No. Maerl thalli are fragile and therefore inherently susceptible to seabed abrasion, although they are resilient to natural movement by currents and waves. It is important not to change the natural disturbance regime or increase compaction of maerl as this can kill live thalli through burial in sediment or crush the brittle thalli, reducing their length and complexity. Large live thalli can range from 10s-100s of years old (and dead thalli 100s-1000s of years old) and with increasing maerl size, the three-dimensional complexity of the thalli increases which leads to increases in the diversity of associated flora and fauna. The size of maerl thalli decreases in the presence of activities that abrade or compact the seabed resulting in associated biodiversity loss.

Summary:
Maerl produces complex habitats that are biodiversity hotspots, that provide important nursery areas for fish and shellfish species such as cod and edible crustaceans, as well as brood stock areas for a range of other species including commercially important bivalves such as scallops and clams. Three hundred and forty nine macroalgal species have been recorded on North East Atlantic maerl beds, which is 30% of the total seaweed diversity in this region. Similarly, over 2,500 macrobenthic species have been found associated with North East Atlantic maerl beds which coincidentally constitute around 30% of the total number of coastal invertebrate species in the area. 
In Europe, maerl has been dredged from both living beds and fossilised deposits for use as an agricultural soil conditioner as well as for use in animal and human food additives, water filtration systems, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. Although quantities were initially small, by the 1970s a peak of around 600 000 tonnes were extracted per year in France. Due to the very slow rate of growth, maerl is considered to be a non-renewable resource and, even if the proportion of living maerl in commercially collected material is low, extraction has major effects on the wide range of species present in both live and dead maerl deposits. Other impacts associated with dredging activity are muddy plumes which later settle out and smother associated and surrounding communities. Damage to the surface of beds is also caused by heavy demersal fishing gear, from pollution by finfish and shellfish aquaculture operations in inshore waters, and suction dredging for bivalves. Coastal construction and increases in agricultural and sewage discharges may also have some impact if they increase sediment loads or result in benthic eutrophication through the excessive growth of ephemeral species of macroalgae around maerl beds. Prohibiting the direct extraction of maerl would be of immediate benefit to this habitat. Other important conservation and management measures would be to stop the use of mobile demersal gears and other types of fishing activity where this habitat occurs and ensure sufficient distance between maerl beds and aquaculture facilities.

References:
Brodie, J., Williamson, C. J., Smale, D. A., Kamenos, N. A., Mieszkowska, N., Santos, R., Cunliffe, M., Steinke, M., Yesson, C., Anderson, K. M., Asnaghi, V., Brownlee, C., Burdett, H. L., Burrows, M. T., Collins, S., Donohue, P. J. C., Harvey, B., Foggo, A., Noisette, F., Nunes, J., Ragazzola, F., Raven, J. A., Schmidt, D, N., Suggett, D., Teichberg, M., Hall-Spencer, J. M. 2014. The future of the NE Atlantic benthic flora in a high CO2 world. Ecology and Evolution 4: 2787-2789.
Burrows, M. T., Kamenos, N. A., Hughes, D. J., Stahl, H., Howe, J. A. and Tett, P. 2014. Assessment of carbon budgets and potential blue carbon stores in Scotland's coastal and marine environment. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 761. Available at: http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/publications/commissioned_reports/761.pdf. (Accessed: 14/08/2015).
Cloern, J. E., Abreu, P. C., Carstensen, C., Chauvaud, L., Elmgren, R., Grall, J., Greening, H., Johansson, J. O. R., Kahru, M., Sherwood, E. T., Xu, J. and Yin, K. 2015. Human activities and climate variability drive fast-paced change across the world’s estuarine-coastal ecosystems. Global Change Biology 21: 3608-3619.
Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N. et al. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 04.05 JNCC. [online] Peterborough: ISBN 1 861 07561 8. Available at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/04_05_introduction.pdf. (Accessed: 30/08/2014).
European Environment Agency, 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 14/08/2015).
Grall, J. and Hall-Spencer, J. M. 2003. Problems facing maerl conservation in Brittany. Aquatic Conservation: Maine Freshwater Ecosystems 13: 55-64.
Hall-Spencer, J. M., Kelly, J. and Maggs, C. A. 2010. Background document for Maerl beds. OSPAR Commission Report 491/201036pp. Available at: http://qsr2010.ospar.org/media/assessments/Species/P00491_maerl.pdf. (Accessed: 14/08/2015).
Hall-Spencer, J. M, Grall, J., Moore, P. G. and Atkinson, R. J. A. 2003. Bivalve fishing and maerl-bed conservation in France and the UK - retrospect and prospect. Aquatic Conservation 13: 33-41.
Haroun, R., Gil-Rodríguez, M. C., Wildpret de la Torre, W., Prud’homme van Reine, W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. Las Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.
HELCOM. 2013. HELCOM Red List Biotope information sheet, Red List Biotope Expert Group. Available at: http://helcom.fi/Red%20List%20of%20biotopes%20habitats%20and%20biotope%20complexe/HELCOM%20 Red%20List%20AA.D,%20AB.D.pdf. (Accessed: 14/08/2015).
Kamenos, N. A., Moore, P. G. and Hall-Spencer, J. M. 2004. Nursery-area function of maerl grounds for juvenile queen scallops Aequipecten opercularis and other invertebrates. Marine Ecology Progress Series 274: 183-189.
MarLIN (Marine Life Information Network). Maerl – Phymatolithon calcareum – General information. MarLIN website. Available at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/speciesinformation.php?speciesID=4121. (Accessed: 14/08/2015).
Peña, V., Barreiro, R., Hall-Spencer, J. M. and Grall, J. 2013. Lithophyllum spp. form unusual maerl beds in the North East Atlantic: the case study of L. fasciculatum (Lamarck) Foslie, 1898, in Brittany. An aod – les cahiers naturalistes de l’Observatoire marin II(2): 11-21.
Peña, V., Bárbara, I., Grall, J., Maggs, C. A. and Hall-Spencer, J. M. 2014. The diversity of seaweeds on maerl in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biodiversity 44: 533-551.
Peña, V., Bárbara, I. 2008. Biological importance of an Atlantic European maërl bed off Benencia Island (northwest Iberian Peninsula). Botanica Marina 51: 493–505.
Peña, V., De Clerck, O., Afonso-Carrillo, J., Ballesteros, E., Criado, I. B., and Barreiro, R. 2015. An integrative systematic approach to species diversity and distribution in the genus Mesophyllum (Corallinales, Rhodophyta) in Atlantic and Mediterranean Europe. European Journal of Phycology 50: 20-36.
Sheehan E. V., Bridger D and Attrill M. J. 2015. The ecosystem service value of living versus dead biogenic reef. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 154: 248-254.
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P., Gomes-Pereira, J., and Gonçalves, J. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Wallestein, F., Neto, A., Nuno, A., Titley, I., Azevedo, J. 2008. Guia para definiçao de biotopos costeiros em ilhas oceânicas. Secretaria Regional do Ambiente  e do Mar.  Nova Gráfica.

Criterion A Text:
Maerl beds have undergone well-documented declines in condition and are being removed for commercial use in some parts of the regional sea area. Expert opinion indicates that an overall decline in quantity of more than 30% has occurred within the last 50 years. Historical declines have also occurred but there is insufficient information to quantify the extent. This habitat has been assessed as Vulnerable under criterion A for the EU 28 Trends in maerl beds in Norway are unknown but as the majority of the beds are likely to be within the EU 28 this habitat is also assessed as Vulnerable for the EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000 km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. There is a decreasing trend in quantity and quality but the distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at one. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1, B2 & B3 for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
There has been a  substantial reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality of this habitat in the last 50 years (estimated to be a severe decline affectiong more than 30% of the extent). This trend is predicted to continue unless damaging human activities are curtailed. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable under criteria C/D for EU 28. Trends in maerl beds in Norway are unknown but as the majority of the beds are likely to be within the EU 28 this habitat is also assessed as Vulnerable for the EU 28+.

Synthesis:
Maerl beds have declined in both extent and quality in the North East Atlantic. Recorded maerl bed declines include off the west coast of Scotland, related to the expansion of the scallop fishing industry, and a similar situation in Ireland. Extraction of both living and fossil deposits has depleted beds in the Fal Estuary in England and at least four maerl beds in Brittany (France) have been completely destroyed by this activity. In Galicia (north west Spain), mussel farming is implicated in the deterioration of maerl bed complexity and biodiversity through increased sedimentation. A further decline in the condition of this habitat is expected in the next decade due primarily to commercial extraction, mariculture and demersal fishing activities. Because of the slow growth rate of maerl, recovery of areas where maerl has been removed is not considered possible. Recovery of damaged maerl beds is also very slow and likely to take centuries replenish to themselves. Consequently, if damaging activities continue there is a high likelihood of collapse of this habitat.
This habitat does not have a restricted geographical distribution or occur in a few locations but it has been assessed as Vulnerable in the EU 28 and EU 28 +  because of current and likely future continuing declines in quality and quantity.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Lithophyllum maerl beds (assessed separately). The taxonomy of Lithophyllum forming maerl is unclear, but it is known to be an extremely rare and unusual subtype of Atlantic maerl beds. In the Bay of Brest, Lithophyllum beds

Contributors:
V. Peña Freire, J. Grall, J. Hall-Spencer, North East Atlantic Working Group: S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F. Otero-Ferrer, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun Tabraue, N. Sanders.


Habitat Type Name:
A5.35 Atlantic upper circalittoral sandy mud

Habitat Description:
The substrate of this benthic habitat is predominantly cohesive sandy mud, typically with over 20% silt/clay content. It usually occurs in water depths of over 10 m, in areas with weak or very weak tidal streams. It is also present in deeper areas of bays and marine inlets or offshore from less wave exposed coasts. The epifauna may be sparse and scattered  characterised by Sea pens such as Virgularia mirabilis and brittlestars such as Amphiura spp. (e.g. Amphiura filiformis). Mounds, burrows, and tubes indicate the presence of infauna. 
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis. Examples of indicators of "naturalness" that are potential indicators for quality identified for offshore sands are; typical populations of bivalves and epifaunal brittlestars; maintained presence of substratum; lack of smothering; typically
diverse communities with no increase in hardy or opportunistic species; and maintenance of sediment characteristics with typical levels of diversity.
Characteristic species:
Sea pens such as Virgularia mirabilis and brittlestars such as Amphiura spp. (e.g. Amphiura filiformis) are particularly characteristic for this habitat associated by infaunal species including the tube building polychaetes Lagis koreni and Owenia fusiformis, and deposit feeding bivalves such as Mysella bidentata and Abra spp. (e.g. Abra nitida). Other species which may frequently be present and/or in moderate abundance include Cerianthus lloydii, Nephtys inicisa, Diplocirrus glaucus, Pagurus bernhardus, Liocarcinus depurator, Asterias rubens, Ophiura albida, O.ophiura, Pholoe inornata, Pariambus typicus and Nuculoma tenuis. Where this habitat occurs off the coast of mainland Portugal it may be dominated by the polychaetes Galathowenia oculata, Terebellides stroemii, Monticellina spp. e.g. M.dorsobranchialis, Ampharete finmarchica, Maldane glebifex, Chaetozone cf. setosa, Scoloplos armiger, Abyssoninoe hibernica, Mediomastus fragilis, Gallardoneris iberica, Ninoe armoricana; the bivalve Thyasira flexuosa, the amphipod Ampelisca tenuicornis; the cumacean Iphinoe serrata and Nemertina.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4 . A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic circalittoral mud’ (A5.3).
 
Annex 1:
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD: 
Shallow sublittoral mud
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow mud
 
IUCN:
9.6 Subtidal muddy

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
There are extensive areas of sandy mud habitat in circalittoral zones in both sheltered inlets and offshore regions of North East Atlantic.

Trends in Quality:
Most sedimentary benthic systems on the continental shelf of Europe have been modified by fishing activities in the last 100 years, particularly by bottom trawls and dredging. 
An analysis of the fishing intensity of EU trawlers (bottom otter, beam and mid-water trawls) using Automatic Identification System (AIS) ship tracking data over one year (2013/2014) shows high coverage in all European coastal waters and over the continental shelf. When combined with the modelled distribution of EUNIS marine habitat types it is possible to examine the extent of likely impact on a particular benthic habitat. For example, over this time period more than 40% of this habitat type was subject to trawling fishing pressure in the North Sea, with over 20% of this being interpreted a high or moderate pressure. When combining data for the North Sea and Celtic Sea over 60% of this habitat type is considered to have been subject to such fishing pressure. In the German part of the Greater North Sea, more than 80% of the extent of this habitat is believed to have suffered an intermediate decline in quality over the last 50 years. 
The extent of the likely impact of bottom fishing gears on this habitat throughout the North East Atlantic region is also apparent from other analyses which have combined Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) data with sensitivity maps of benthic habitats and disturbance caused by surface abrasion for the continental shelf area of the North East Atlantic. In the case of benthic habitats on upper circalittoral sandy mud habitats for just 2013 this has shown that more than 80% of its occurrence across the shelf area has been subject to abrasion disturbance. Given the evidence that the passage of the first trawls are the most damaging for epifauna, and that, depending on the frequency of demersal trawling and environmental conditions, shifts from benthic communities with large slowly reproducing species to small species with a high reproductive rate (e.g. polychaetes), have been reported several times independently, this is likely to have been a substantial decline in quality of this habitat over at least the last 50 years.

Pressures and Threats:
Demersal fishing gears (such as otter trawls and beam trawls) disturb the upper layers of the sediment and damage both the associated epifauna and shallow infalunal communites. Associated increases in suspended sediments may also have a smothering effect on filter feeders. The degree of any damage will depend on the gear, frequency of use and species present. Frequent trawling may lead to a permanently altered community dominated by fast growing scavenger/predator species.Generally, studies have found that long-living, sessile and suspension-feeding organisms show the greatest declines in response to a given type and frequency of trawl disturbance while opportunistic species, e.g. short-lived polychaetes, are less affected.  In the southern North Sea fishing is thought to have long been the main ecological structuring force on the benthos. 
Near the coast marine fish farms may have direct effects on sandy mud communities, including smothering and increasing the Biological Oxygen Demand of the mud. Additional effects may result from the discharges of chemicals, some of which are especially toxic to crustaceans. The construction of roads, bridges and barrages may affect the local hydrodynamic and sediment transport regimes of inshore enclosed areas and consequently affect the substratum. Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication can lead to changes in the structure and composition of the associated communities.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat can benefit from the regulation of the use of fishing gears that damage or disturb seabed communities. This may be achieved by spatial and temporal controls as well as gear design and deployment using fisheries management measures as well as conservation legislation in marine protected areas. Spatial planning (including zoning) can be used to address potential threats from coastal development and fish farming. The regulation of discharges and run off from agricultural land to the marine environment can be used to avoid eutrophication effects associated with nutrient enrichment.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Timescale between incidents of damaging activity, the type of damaging activity and the predominant species, influences recovery. Studies have shown that recovery times following dredging were significantly shorter for short-lived species (<1 – 3 years), free-living and tube-dwelling species and for scavenging or opportunistic species, than for medium-lived species (3 – 10 years), burrow-dwelling species and suspension feeders. Free living species are also likely to recolonise areas more quicky that those that grow attached to the substratum and have an erect or stalked body form such as seapens.  Differences in the recoverability of different species groups following fishing may result in changes in community composition and ecosystem functioning over the long term.

Summary:
This habitat is generally found in water depths of over 10m, in bays and marine inlets or offshore from less wave exposed coasts. The sediment is a cohesive sandy mud and the epifauna sparse and scattered with mounds, burrows, and tubes indicating the presence of an infaunal community that is dominated by echinoderms, polychaetes and bivalves. 
The main pressures and threats are associated with demersal fisheries, aquaculture, and coastal constructions such as bridges and barrages that may affect the local hydrodynamic and sediment transport regimes. The infaunal communities of this habitat are extremely vulnerable to substratum loss, abrasion and physical disturbance from dredging and trawling activities. Such activity, which is known to degrade the quality of habitats associated with fine sandy mud, has been widespread, for more than a century across the North East Atlantic region and particularly intensive in the North Sea and Celtic Sea. Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication can lead to changes in the structure and composition of the associated communities.
This habitat can benefit from the regulation of the use of fishing gears that damage or disturb seabed communities. This may be spatial and temporal controls as well as regulation of gear design and deployment. Marine Protected Areas and spatial planning (including zoning) can be used to address potential threats from coastal development and fish farming, while the regulation of discharges and run off from agricultural land to the marine environment can be used to avoid eutrophication effects associated with nutrient enrichment.

References:
Airoldi, L. & Beck, M. W. 2007. Loss, status and trends for coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanography and Marine Biology; An annual Review 45: 345-405.
Ball, B. J., Fox, G. & Munday, B. W. 2000. Long- and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: 1315-1320
Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N. et al. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 04.05 JNCC. [online] Peterborough: ISBN 1 861 07561 8. Available at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/04_05_introduction.pdf. (Accessed: 30/08/2014).          
Eigaard Ole R. et al. “Estimating seabed pressure from demersal trawls, seines, and dredges based on gear design and dimensions” ICES J. Mar. Sci., doi = 10.1093/icesjms/fsv099.                                                                                        
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 23/12/2015).
Frid, C. L. J., Harwood, K. G., Hall, S. J. & Hall, J. A. 2000. Long-term changes in the benthic communities on North Sea fishing grounds. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: 1303-1309.
Hill, J. M. 2004. Amphiura filiformis and Echinocardium cordatum in circalittoral clean or slightly muddy sand. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitats/detail/368/amphiura_filiformis_mysella_bidentata_and_abra_nitida_in_circalittoral_sandy_mud. (Accessed: 15/11/2015). 
Hill, J. M. & Wilson, E. 2004. Virgularia mirabilis and Ophiura spp. on circalittoral sandy or shelly mud. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitats/detail/66/virgularia_mirabilis_and_ophiura_spp_with_pecten_maximus_on_circalittoral_sandy_or_shelly_mud. (Accessed: 11/10/2015). 
UK Biodiversity Group. 2008. UK Biodiversity Action Plan; Priority Habitat Descriptions. BRIG (ed. Ant Maddock) 2008. (Updated Dec 2011): 46.
Tempera, F. 2015. Bringing together harmonized EUNIS seabed habitat geospatial information for the European Seas. JRC Technical report. EUR 27237.
Vespe M, Gibin M, Alessandrini A, Natale F, Mazzarella F, & Osio G. in press. Mapping EU fishing activities using ship tracking data – accepted for publication, Journal of Maps – available at http://arxiv.org/pdf/1603.03826

Criterion B Text:
There has been a decline in quality of this habitat due to disturbance of benthic communities resulting from demersal fishing gears in particular. This trend is considered likely to continue however, the distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. Furthermore this habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region and as EOO >50,000 km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
Most sedimentary benthic systems on the continental shelf of Europe have been modified by fishing activities in the last 100 years, particularly by bottom trawls and dredging. 
A recent analysis of the fishing intensity of EU trawlers (bottom otter, beam and mid-water trawls) using Automatic Identification System (AIS) ship tracking data over one year (2013/2014) shows high coverage in all European coastal waters and over the continental shelf. When combined with the modelled distribution of EUNIS marine habitat types it is possible to examine the extent of likely impact on a particular benthic habitat. For example, over this time period more than 40% of this habitat type was subject to trawling fishing pressure in the North Sea, with over 20% of this being interpreted a high or moderate pressure. When combining data for the North Sea and Celtic Sea over 60% of this habitat type is considered to have been subject to such fishing pressure. The extent of the likely impact of bottom fishing gears on this habitat throughout the North East Atlantic region is also apparent from other analyses which have combined VMS data with sensitivity maps of benthic habitats and disturbance caused by surface abrasion for the continental shelf area of the North East Atlantic. In the case of benthic habitats on upper circalittoral sandy mud substrate for just 2013 this has shown that more than 80% of its occurrence across the shelf area has been subject to abrasion disturbance. Given that this is based on a single year of data, and that this type of pressure has been taking place for decades, it is likely to be an underestimate of the total area of this habitat which has been subject to such pressure.
Expert opinion is that there is likely to have been a very substantial reduction in quality of this habitat - an intermediate decline in quality affecting more than 80% of this habitat in the North East Atlantic region although it is also possible that more than 30% has been subject to a severe decline. This will depend on factors such as the intensity and frequency of disturbance. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Endangered under criteria C/D for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Synthesis:
Most sedimentary benthic systems on the continental shelf of Europe have been modified by fishing activities in the last 100 years, particularly by mobile demersal gears, and this habitat remains under such fishing pressure which can damage or modify infaunal and epifaunal communities. Data for a single year (2013/2014) has revealed that over 60% of this habitat in the North Sea and Celtic Sea was subject to fishing pressure by bottom otter, beam and mid-water trawls. In the German part of the Greater North Sea, more than 80% of the extent of this habitat is believed to have suffered an intermediate decline in quality over the last 50 years. 
The extent of the likely impact of bottom fishing gears on this habitat throughout the North East Atlantic region is also apparent from other analyses which have combined VMS data with sensitivity maps of benthic habitats and disturbance caused by surface abrasion for the continental shelf area of the North East Atlantic. In the case of benthic habitats on sandy mud substrate for just 2013 this has shown that more than 80% of its occurrence across the shelf area has been subject to abrasion disturbance. Much the same footprint of activity is likely each year and as this type of fishing pressure has been ongoing for many decades, there has most likely been a cumulative impact on habitat quality.
Expert opinion is that there has been a very substantial reduction in quality of this habitat, most likely an intermediate decline affecting more than 80% of its extent although it is clear that in some locations there has also been a severe decline. The severity will depend on factors such as the intensity and frequency of disturbance. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Endangered for both the EU 28 and EU 28+ because of both past and likely continuing declines in quality.


Habitat Description:
This habitat type comprises (sub)alpine and (sub)arctic alder (Alnus viridis), willow (Salix spp.), dwarf birch (Betula nana) and other deciduous scrub. Also Potentilla fruticosa dominated scrub that appears in the Bulgarian mountains (F2.336) is included. The stand height of the habitat in most cases is between 1 and 5 meters. Low dwarf willow communities are excluded from this habitat and instead included in type F2.1. Also excluded in the (sub)alpine and (sub)arctic belts are willow scrub on alluvial soils (habitat F9.1) and willow scrub in waterlogged fens and mires (habitat F9.2). Alnus viridis scrub is found throughout the subalpine belts of all mountain ranges of central Europe. This shrub is a pioneer species in humid sites on deeper soils that are regularly disturbed, like on steep, north-exposed slopes where avalanches occur occasionally. On sites cleared by avalanches, Alnus viridis may be found in lower (montane) altitudes as well. It is found in the Alps and Carpathians. On Corsica a different subspecies Alnus viridis subsp. suaveolens grows in a similar habitat. Salix species (S. appendiculata, S. glabra, S. hastata, S. waldsteiniana) may dominate a lower shrub layer or – in lower altitudes – form its own scrub type in similar sites. The type contains several Salix species that are (regional) rare in the temperate mountain regions. Accompanying species are often from tall herb communities, for example, Adenostyles alliariae or Cicerbita alpina, or from subalpine heathlands. In the southern outcrops of the Alps and along the Dinarides, Rhamnus fallax dominates communities of this habitat. In the subarctic and boreal regions on similar slopes Salix lapponum, Salix glauca, Salix hastata, Salix phylicifolia may grow in a mixture of tall-herb species and Vaccinium myrtillus, Phyllodoce caerulea, and/or Juniperus communis. The same willows are found along creeks and rivers, as part of the habitat alluvial scrub (F9.1). The geological substrate of the habitat is diverse, covering for example both marl and limestone. The habitat appears in open sites with high soil moisture and moderate-rich in nutrients. The species of the type are well adapted to low temperature and snow accumulation. These deciduous scrubs are the pioneer communities on screes and in areas cleared by avalanches because the shrub species are able to regrow from roots and stumps. Therefore, they also have a significant role in the prevention of erosion and snow slides. Propitious sites for these communities can be found also along streams because of humidity, small soil partitions and disturbance caused by the water stream. The habitat can also appear as a succession stage in subalpine pastures or meadows, where grazing or haymaking is no longer maintained. These communities are mainly of secondary origin. But as they survive snow slips better than tree species, they can build permanent (paraclimatic) communities under the influence of avalanches or streams, in sites where tree species cannot survive.
Indicators of quality:
These habitats are mainly of secondary origin. They are threatened by logging or burning, erosion or snow slips, and channeling of streams, as well as by succession towards forest. The following characteristics can be considered as indicators of good quality:
species richness of shrub species,

presence of breeding birds and other fauna,

long-term maintenance because of natural disturbance regime.


Characteristic species:
Flora (Vascular plants):
Shrubs/low trees: Acer pseudoplatanus, Alnus viridis subsp. viridis, Alnus viridis subsp. suaveolens, Rhamnus fallax, Ribes alpinum, Salix alpina, Salix appendiculata, Salix bicolor, Salix caesia, Salix foetida, Salix glabra, Salix glaucosericea, Salix hastata, Salix helvetica, Salix laggeri, Salix lapponum, Salix phylicifolia, Salix silesiaca, Salix waldsteiniana, Sorbus aucuparia, Sorbus chamaemespilus, Vaccinium myrtillus.
Herbs: Aconitum spp., Adenostyles alliariae, Chaeropyllum hirsutum subsp. villarsii, Cicerbita alpina, Doronicum austriacum, Dryopteris dilatata, Geranium sylvaticum, Geum coccineum, Geum rivale, Geum urbanum, Hypericum maculatum, Lonicera alpigena, Lonicera xylosteum, Milium effusum, Polygonatum verticillatum, Saxifraga rotundifolia, Senecio ovatus, Sesleria coerulea, Stellaria nemorum, Thalictrum aquilegifolium, Veratrum album agg., Viola biflora.

Classification:
EUNIS:
F2.3 Subalpine deciduous scrub
EuroVegChecklist:
Seslerio-Rhamnion fallacis Dakskobler et al. 2013
Lonicero-Rhamnion fallacis P. Fukarek 1969
Alnion viridis Schnyder 1930
Salicion pentandrae Br.-Bl. 1967
Salicion helveticae Theurillat et al. 1995
Salicion silesiacae Rejmánek et al. 1971
Salicion phylicifoliae Dierssen 1992 (partly, only non-alliuvial communities with Salix lapponum)
Doronicion corsici Gamisans 1975 (incl. Cymbalarion hepaticifoliae)
Communities with Alnus viridis ssp. suaevolens in Corsica
Annex 1:
4080 Sub-Arctic Salix shrub
Emerald:
F2.32 Subalpine and oroboreal Salix brush
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.3. Boreal shrub
3.4 Temperate shrub

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This scrub is a typical element of alpine and boreal regions.

Map Description:
The Map provides good picture of the range but has data gaps in the whole range, and especially in the UK. This habitat type probably occurs also in Sweden and Norway, but no data have been provided for those countries. Data Sources: EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
According to the territorial data, we can see that the surfaces have increased by 11.4% within the EU28 and 15.1% within the EU28+, respectively, over the last 50 years. This is the result of abandonment of grazing in the mountains, which has  especially lead to an increase of Alnus viridis-communities in the Alps and Salix bicolor-communities in the Pyrenees, whereas other types remained more or less stable. We can expect that this trend will continue in the future.

Trends in Quality:
We have detected a negative trend in quality: 33.7% (EU28) and 14.6% (EU28+) of the total area have been affected by an average slight decrease in quality over the last 50 years. On sites, where the abandonment of grazing has lead to an expansion of this habitat type, it represents a successional stage that needs some time to settle in its characteristic composition.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
According to the provided national data, about 45% of the European surfaces of this habitat type are within the EU28. If we take into consideration that data from Scandinavia are mostly missing and such habitats can be also found on Caucasus, we could estimate about 50% of this habitat type lies within the EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat type is about to expand. The main reason is the abandonment of grazing leading to a spread of these scrub habitats. The EOO is > 50000 km².

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has a large natural distribution, from south European mountains to the boreal region.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threat is the abandonment of traditional agriculture in the mountains (pastoralism). After abandonment, the former pastures are overgrown with subalpine deciduous scrub, but further progress of succession leads to reforestation. On the other side, there is a local loss of habitats due to the construction of touristic facilities in mountain areas (e. g. ski resorts). Activities like mountaineering and skiing can cause deterioration and degradation of scrub habitats. Furthermore, global warming has to be considered also as a potential threat, that could have an impact on specific characteristics of this habitat type or its altitudinal shift.

Conservation and Management:
One of the main conservation goals is to maintain the traditional land use in the mountains (especially grazing). Though the scrubs have often been a subject of cutting, burning and eradication, the present appearance of this habitat was built under such pressures. After the abandonment of former pastures, first stages of secondary succession are built by subalpine deciduous scrubs that develop further into forests (reforestation). Other, natural sites of this habitat are found on the edges of screes, where the initial stages of succession (scrubs) are maintained by avalanches. We also have to take care of this habitat when it comes to construction of touristic infrastructures (roads, ski resorts, paths etc.).

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
4080: ALP U1, ATL U2, BOR, FV, CON U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat appears under hard mountainous conditions. We can estimate that it can recover its typical character within 10 years after intervention and naturally within about 20 years in case of proper habitat connectivity.

Summary:
This habitat type comprises subalpine and subarctic scrub dominated by various deciduous shrubs and small trees, widely distributed on moist screes, river gravels and avalanche falls through Alpine and Boreal regions, in the Arctic lowlands and some temperate mountains. Well adapted to disturbance and snow lie, it is often a primary development in more natural situations but can also spread into abandoned pastures as part of a succession to forest. Cut out or burned from pastures still in use, it is also threatened by tourist developments and the spread of mountain settlements. Maintenance of traditional land-use and careful planning are needed for conservation.

References:
Boscutti, F., Poldini, L. and Buccheri, M. 2013. Green alder communities in the Alps: Phytosociological variability and ecological features. Plant Biosystems 148(5): 917-934.
Dakskobler, I., Franz, W. and Rozman, A. 2013. Phytosociology and ecology of Rhamnus fallax in the Southeastern Alps and in the northwestern part of the Dinaric Alps. Wulfenia 20: 101-144.
Dakskobler, I., Rozman, A. and Seliškar, A. 2013. Forest and Scrub Communities with Green Alder (Alnus viridis) in Slovenia. Hacquetia, 12(2): 95-185.
Fremstad, E. 1997. Vegetasjonstyper i Norge. NINA Temahefte 12: 1-279.

Criterion A Text:
The provided figures have been calculated using the information from the territorial data sheets. The habitat shows an increase in surface, most probably due to abandonment of pastoralism in the mountains.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO is larger than 50000 km2 and the AOO is > 50, so these criteria are not met.

Criterion C/D Text:
The provided figures have been calculated using the territorial data sheets. To a certain extent the habitats are a part of succession series of subalpine pastures and these early successional stages do not have the typical characteristics of this habitat type. Other reasons for the degradation in quality are due to overgrazing, especially burning, cutting and eradication of shrubs. Furthermore, there is a negative influence because of the construction of infrastructure (e.g. roads, ski resort and similar). Degradation can also be caused by climate change.

Synthesis:
The habitat was estimated as Least Concern (LC). The habitat is widely distributed in the Alpine and Boreal regions, and in almost all countries it has a stable or increasing area, mainly due to encroachment in grasslands after abandonment of management. Only minor parts of the habitat showed a decreased quality.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
This habitat is not well elaborated throughout Europe; there are no data from some mountainous countries in the temperate part of Europe, as well as some countries from boreal biogeographic regions.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: A. ÄŒarni
Territorial data: ABG & AM Averis, E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytry, R.Delarze, P. Finck, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, T. Kontula, J. Loidi, A. Mikolajczak, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, D. Paternoster, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Russakova, A. Ssymank, J. Šibík, Å½. Škvorc
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Type Name:
F7.3 Eastern Mediterranean spiny heath (phrygana)

Habitat Description:
This habitat includes low, thorny and chamaephytic communities of hemispherical shrubs, widespread at low and middle altitudes in the eastern Mediterranean and Anatolian regions. These phrygana communities occur at the coastal thermo-, meso- and the supra-Mediterranean zones of the Aegean islands, of mainland Greece and the Ionian islands, of coastal Anatolia and Crete (up to 1200 m a.s.l.), and are much more widespread and diverse than the western Mediterranean spiny shrub communities (F7.1-2). The Sarcopoterium spinosum-dominated communities, by far the commonest phrygana facies, are widespread in the Aegean archipelagos and Crete, with local outposts in continental Greece, the Ionian islands and coastal Anatolia. In this habitat are also included varied communities of supra- and oro-Mediterranean levels of Crete resulting from the broad contact between phryganas and hedgehog-heaths, with Euphorbia acanthothamnos, Verbascum spinosum, Berberis cretica, Phlomis cretica, Satureja thymbra, Sideritis syriaca, Hypericum empetrifolium, Origanum microphyllum, Micromeria juliana, Helichrysum italicum subsp. microphyllum, Genista acanthoclada and Astragalus angustifolius. Here are also included phrygana communities rich in Cistus, Erica and Genista species which  occur on calcareous (Hyperico empetrifolii-Micromerion graecae, Micromerion julianae, Helichryso sanguinei-Origanion syriaci), as well as on non-calcareous substrates (Helichryso barrelieri-Phagnalion graeci, Hyperico olympici-Cistion cretici, Helichryso sanguinei-Origanion syriaci), such as granite, gneiss and phyllitic schists, on serpentine, on hard and soft marls, on volcanic soils, and on sand. The distribution range of the Helichryso barrelieri-Phagnalion graeci includes Peloponnesus and Crete, the Ionian and the Aegean sides of the Greek mainland, the Central and South Aegean islands and the Aegean coast of Anatolia northward to approx. 39o N (Barbero & Quezel 1989, Mucina et al. 2009), i.e. a region where vegetation linked to the thermo-mediterranean belt is widely distributed (Quezel & Barbero 1985), although the communities of the alliance are not strictly limited to low altitudes (also vegetation relevés from the Pilion peninsula middle altitudes are placed in the Helichryso barrelieri-Phagnalion graeci). The distribution range of the Helichryso sanguinei-Origanion syriaci includes Cyprus, Turkey, Syria and Lebanon, where it occurs on calcareous and marl substrates as well as on serpentines and metamorphic substrates, at altitudes ranging from the sea level to 1200 m (thermo-, meso- and supra- Mediterranean vegetation belts). The distribution range of the Hyperico olympici-Cistion cretici and the Micromerion julianae includes Northern Greece (Central Macedonia, Thrace), Central Greece (Thessaly), where the phrygana communities occur on non-calcareous and calcareous substrates respectively. Included here are also the thorny cushion communities of the Thracian wooded steppe zone enclaved between the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean, with Sarcopoterium spinosum and Astragalus thracicus. These are distributed in northeastern Greece and Turkey-in-Europe, with local representatives in the xerothermic oak belt of the hills and rim of the Northern Thracian plain (East Rumelian plain) of southeastern Bulgaria, in particular, in the Bakadzicita hills of the Yambol Tundzja basin and in the foothills of the eastern Rhodopes. Finally, the cushion-forming thermo-mediterranean summer-deciduous phrygana communities of Cyprus are assigned to the Sarcopoterio spinosi-Genistion fasselatae alliance. They are mostly characteristic of the Cyprian central plains (thermo- and meso- Mediterranean altitudinal levels: 0-800 m a.s.l.), with a semi-steppic batha appearance (Irano-Turanian affinities) formed by Sarcopoterium spinosum, Thymbra capitata, Lithodora hispidula, Onosma fruticosum, Galium suberosum. They are distributed on sandy and loamy soils. This habitat can be of primary origin or having a climax character especially in the islands of the Aegean, as well as in the coastal zones of Anatolia, Cyprus, Syria and Lebanon. It is often the result of retrogressive succession of evergreen sclerophyllous vegetation.
Indicators of quality
Low levels of soil compactness
Absence of active secondary succession
Low degree of shrub and grass encroachment
Mosaics of the phyrgana communities with screes, rocks, boulders
Patchiness of shrubs with herbs/grasses, and potentially arborescent shrubs (e.g. Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus coccifera, Juniperus phoenicea) or single trees
Natural, undisturbed relief
Absence or low cover (<5%) of invasive and/or ruderal species

Characteristic species
Cistus creticus, C. salviifolius, Erica manipuliflora, Genista acanthoclada, Hypericum empetrifolium subsp. empetrifolium, Hypericum olympicum, Satureja thymbra, Helichrysum stoechas subsp. barrelieri, Calicotome villosa, Helichrysum sanguineum, Micromeria myrtifolia, Origanum syriacum, Phlomis viscosa, Teucrium brevifolium, Daphne gnidioides, Lactuca triquerta, Daphne sericea, Lomelosia argentea (=Scabiosa argentea), Fagonia cretica, Lomelosia brachiata (=Pterocephalus palaestinus), Onosma frutescens, Sarcopoterium spinosum, Genista fasselata, Euphorbia acanthothamnos, Verbascum spinosum, Berberis cretica, Phlomis cretica, Sideritis syriaca, Origanum microphyllum, Micromeria juliana, Micromeria graeca, Helichrysum italicum subsp. microphyllum, Centaurea spinosa, Stachys spinosa, Ballota pseudodictamnus, Lithospermum hispidulum, Fumana arabica, F. thymifolia, Teucrium divaricatum, T. polium, Salvia triloba, Phagnalon graecum, Phlomis fruticosa.

Classification:
EUNIS:
F7.3 East Mediterranean phrygana
EuroVegChecklist:
Hyperico olympici-Cistion cretici (Oberd. 1954) R.Jahn et Bergmeier in Mucina et al. 2009
Helichryso barrelieri-Phagnalion graeci (Barbero et Quézel 1989) R.Jahn in Mucina et al. 2009
Hyperico empetrifolii-Micromerion graecae Barbero et Quézel 1989
Helichryso sanguinei-Origanion syriaci Barbero et Quézel 1989
Micromerion julianae Oberd. 1954
Sarcopoterio spinosi-Genistion fasselatae Costa et al. 1984
Annex I:
5420 Sarcopoterium spinosum phryganas
5430 Endemic phryganas of the Euphorbio-Verbascion
Emerald:
F7 Spiny Mediterranean heaths (phrygana, hedgehog-heaths and related coastal cliff vegetation)
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.8 Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is extensively distributed in East Mediterranean and is the predominant vegetation in large areas at the thermo- and meso- Mediterranean regions, such as southern Greece and the Aegean.

Map Description:
The map likely provides the complete distribution of the habitat in Greece, Italy and Cyprus, but some occurrences in southern Albania are possible and the distribution in Bulgaria is missing. Data sources: Art17.

Comment EU28:
The current estimated total area is based only on the territorial data provided and we have also added the current area given for the Annex I habitat type 5420 Malta.

Comment EU28+:
No quantitative data exist for addiitonal EU 28+ countries.

Trends in Quantity:
Due to the socio-economic changes (abandonment of cultivated fields, fires) happened the last 50 years in the European part of the East Mediterranean distribution range of the phrygana vegetation (especially in Greece and Cyprus where the phrygana predominate in large areas), and taking into account the dynamics of the phrygana (primary natural vegetation, post-fire regeneration stages of woodland and rangeland vegetation, initial but durable stage within the secondary succession of abandoned fields) the trend in quantity is increasing.

Trends in Quality:
The trend in quality, that is mainly related to the structure of the habitat (including the species composition), is stable to increasing.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
There has been no significant regression of the natural range of the habitat the last 50 years. The opposite could be documented due to the secondary succession of abandoned fields.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has an extensive distribution range in the East Mediterranean region.

Pressures and Threats:
The habitat can either be considered as natural vegetation (primary origin) on dry sites with shallow soils (islands of the Aegean and Crete, as well as in the coastal zones of Anatolia, Cyprus, Syria and Lebanon) or of secondary origin (the result of retrogressive succession of evergreen sclerophyllous vegetation). More specifically, in some parts of its distribution, phrygana communities are established as a result of disturbance of former woodland or maquis. In other parts, phygana communities have been established on ex-arable land or elsewhere after abandonment; in other cases different phrygana communities form stages of post-fire succession. Human action has eliminated the original variability of the phygana communities related to climatic factors particularly in continental Greece; as a result, most of the phrygana communities in this part of the country are the result of human impact. Grazing at moderate intensity is one of the drivers that contribute to the preservation of a favourable conservation status of the habitat structure but intensive grazing contributes to the deterioration of its structure. The actual phryganic ecosystems are in most cases stages of man-made degradation of the original Mediterranean forest.

Conservation and Management:
No conservation management measures have been applied to the phrygana vegetation along its distribution in the Eastern Mediterannean. Different phrygana vegetation communities are established after the abandonment of cultivated fields (and depending on the crop, different species are predominating).

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Depending on the dynamics of the different phyrgana communities assigned to this habitat along its East Mediterranean distribution, different restoration/recovery times are expected. Some phrygana communities represent initial but duarable stages within the secondary succession of abandoned fields, other communities form part of a series of post-fire regeneration stages of woodland and rangeland vegetation, and finally other communities in thermo- and meso-Mediterranean regions such as southern Greece and the Aegean (as well as in the coastal zones of Anatolia, Cyprus, Syria and Lebanon), mature phrygana occur which are considered to represent at least partly primary natural ecosystems. The natural recovery of the habitat after complete deterioration or destruction is rapid and no management measures are needed.

Summary:
This habitat of low, thorny hemispherical shrubs and mat-formers is widespread at low and middle altitudes in the eastern Mediterranean and Anatolian regions. One of the most species-rich habitats of the Mediterranean basin, it occurs naturally on dry sites with shallow soils but its resistance to grazing and fire and its spread on to cultivated fields, make it often a secondary succession or regeneration stage. Then, natural patterns of regional variation tend to be obscured. Grazing at moderate intensity is one of the drivers that contribute to the preservation of a favourable structure but intensive grazing contributes to the deterioration of the habitat.

References:
Barbero, M. & Quézel, P. (1989). Contribution á 1’étude phytosociologique des matorrais de Méditerranée orientale. Lazaroa 11: 37-60.
Bergmeier, E. (2002). The vegetation of the high mountains of Crete - a revision and multivariate analysis. Phytocoenologia 32(2): 205-249.
Brullo, S., Minissale, P. & Spampinato, G. (1997).  La classe Cisto-Micromerietea nel Mediterraneo centrale e orientale. Fitosociologia 32: 29-60.
Mucina, L., Dengler, J., Bergmeier, E., ÄŒarni, A., Dimopoulos, P., Jahn, R., & Matevski, V. (2009). New and validated high-rank syntaxa from Europe. Lazaroa 30: 267-276.
Oberdorfer, E. (1954). Nordägäische Kraut- und Zwergstrauchfluren im Vergleich mit den entsprechenden Vegetationseinheiten des westlichen Mittelmeergebietes. Vegetatio 5/6: 88-96.

Criterion A Text:
Estimation of the decline is based on the assessment provided by national experts. A slight decline has been recorded to the extent of the habitat the last 50 years.

Criterion B Text:
Based on literature and the AOO and EOO as provided by Alterra, we come to the conclusion that there is no continuing decline in spatial extent, not to the abiotic or biotic quality of the habitat.

Criterion C/D Text:
Both biotic and abiotic quality of the habitat have not substantially reduced the last 50 years. Decline in quality (regarding the species composition and structural elements of the phrygana communities assigned to this habitat) has been summarized on the basis of the national experts assessments. From the calculations on the trend in quality, it is evident that the last 50 years as an average no decline in quality (extent of degradation equals 0%) has been reported..

Synthesis:
The habitat includes some of the most species rich plant communities of the Mediterranean basin and is assessed at the Least Concern status. This is because it has an extensive distribution in the Eastern Mediterranean and no decline has been recorded to the extent and the quality characteristics of the habitat during the last 50 years. Furthermore, due to the socio-economic changes of the last 50 years, the trend in quality and quantity is increasing and is predicted that also the future trend will be increasing.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
This East Mediterranean habitat is very diverse based on the known number of syntaxonomic units at the level of association and plant community, and these are considered sub-habitats of the F7.3. The habitat includes different communities depending on

Contributors:
Type description: P. Dimopoulos & F. Xystrakis
Territorial data: P. Dimopoulos, G. Giusso del Galdo, C. Marcenò, S. Sciandrello
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Description:
Typical Atlantic to sub-Atlantic heathland, dominated by Erica tetralix, is found on moist to wet, nutrient-poor acidic soils and shallow peats in sandy and rocky landscapes of Southwestern Norway, the northwest-European plain and the warmer Atlantic regions of France and northern Iberia, becoming rare southwards and eastwards with some scattered localities in the Baltic States. In many cases, the habitat exists due to human activities, like grazing, sod cutting or mowing and continuation of traditional management is needed for its maintenance. In other situations it forms a natural succession stage towards woodlands.
In its heartland, Erica tetralix is accompanied by Carex panicea, Trichophorum cespitosum, Juncus squarrosus, Drosera rotundifolia, Gentiana pneumonanthe, Lycopodiella inundata, Sphagnum compactum, S. tenellum, S. molle and Narthecium ossifragum, typical Ericion tetralicis. Such vegetation may also be found on the margins of bogs where the peat cover thins, on drained peatlands and on the shores of oligotrophic waters and in seepage areas on the edge of brook valleys.  In the last situation, Molinietalia species such as Dactylorhiza maculata and Pedicularis sylvatica occur. Molinia caerulea is itself a common species of the habitat and may become dominant if there is some strong water table fluctuation during the year, either natural or through anthropogenic deterioration of the hydrology, or after burning.  Much more rarely, Erica tetralix-dominated wet heath is found in fen areas in the Northwestern plain (Netherlands, Germany, Poland), where it forms a late succession stage in the development of transitional mires (alliance Oxycocco-Ericion) when accompanying species can include Phragmites australis, Sphagnum palustre, Drosera rotundifolia, Molinia caerulea and Aulacomnium palustre.
In the warmer and more humid oceanic climate of south-west England, Brittany and south-west France wet heath can also include Erica vagans, E. ciliaris, E. mackaiana and Ulex minor and in the foothills of northern Iberia Erica tetralix is accompanied by Genista micrantha, Genista anglica, Potentilla erecta and Thymelaea dendryobryum. 
In landscapes which include drier acidic soils the habitat forms mosaics with F4.2 Dry heath where Calluna vulgaris usually dominates but where Erica tetralix may remain abundant on intermediate soils and on north-facing slopes or become dominant where a thickening humus layer maintains a moister surface or where moisture collects in depressions left by sod cutting. In dunes, Erica tetralix vegetation may be part of B1.5a Empetrum heathlands or B1.8a Wet dune slacks.
Indicators of good quality
Dominance of Erica tetralix
No overwhelming encroachment of grasses (notably Molinia caerulea), shrubs (for example, Myrica gale) or trees (for example, Betula pubescens).
Occurring as part of a wider heath landscape, forming mosaics with drier heath, mires and water bodies.
Long continuation of management (grazing, mowing, sod-cutting or combinations of these).

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Calluna vulgaris, Carex panicea, Drosera rotundifolia, Erica ciliaris, Erica mackaiana, Erica tetralix, Genista micrantha, Gentiana pneumonanthe, Juncus squarrosus, Molinia caerulea, Myrica gale, Narthecium ossifragum, Thymelaea dendryobryum, Trichophorum cespitosum ssp. germanicum, Trichophorum cespitosum ssp. cespitosum, Ulex minor
Mosses: Campylopus brevipilus, Gymnocolea inflata, Sphagnum compactum, S. molle, S. palustre, S. tenellum
Fauna:
Reptiles: Vivera berus ssp. berus
Insects: Maculinea alcon

Classification:
EUNIS:
F4.1 Wet heath
EuroVegChecklist:
Ericion tetralicis Schwickerath 1933
Oxycocco-Ericion tetralicis Nordhagen ex Tx. 1937
Genistion micrantho-anglicae Rivas-Mart. 1979
Ulicion minoris Malcuit 1929
Annex 1: 
4010 Northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix
4020 Temperate Atlantic wet heaths with Erica ciliaris and Erica tetralix
Emerald:
F4.1 Wet heaths
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
Temperate shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is typical of the more oceanic climate, sandy lowland landscapes and traditional agricultural history of the Atlantic region of Europe.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, except for possible data gaps in Norway. Data sources: EVA, Art17.

Comment EU28:
Based on existing data provided by EU member States.

Comment EU28+:
Insufficient data to make a total calculation

Trends in Quantity:
In the countries where the habitat is best represented, the trend in quantity is decreasing (Ireland) or stable (United Kingdom, Spain).

Trends in Quality:
In most of the countries for which data are available, the quality is declining.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is widespread in 8 countries of EU28 from Sweden to Spain.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has a large geographic European distribution.

Pressures and Threats:
The main reported threats are changes to the hydrology, atmospheric nitrogen input, lack of grazing and natural overgrowth by trees or afforestation, widespread changes on lowland heath landscapes throughout Europe.

Conservation and Management:
Wet heath has traditionally been subject to light grazing by stock and wild herbivores, mowing and sod-cutting or combinations of these and abandonment of such interventions allows invasion by shrubs and trees. Site designation always needs follow up by extensive agricultural management.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
4010: ATL U2, BOR U2, CON U2, MED U1
4020: ALP U1, ATL U2, CON U2, MED U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
If the soil have been perturbated, resilience of the habitat is affected and restoration always needs some traditional management.

Summary:
This habitat of heath dominated by Erica tetralix and other sub-shrubs occurs on moist to wet, nutrient-poor acidic soils and shallow peats in sandy landscapes of the northwest-European plain and the warmer Atlantic regions of France and northern Iberia, becoming rare eastwards with some scattered localities in the Baltic States. It is not necessarily species-rich but includes a range of distinctive regional types characterised by sub-shrubs of restricted distribution. Often dependent on grazing, brush-cutting and sod-cutting to prevent shrub and tree invasion and succession to woodland, it is found as part of heath landscapes among mosaics of dry heaths and mires, or occurring on the margins of bogs where it can spread with drainage.  It is widely threatened by cessation of traditional agriculture, changes to the hydrology, tree-planting and fire. Though widely protected, maintainance of low intensity management is usually necessary for sustaining its quality.

References:
Géhu, J.-M. (1975). Essai pour un système de classification phytosociologique des landes atlantiques françaises. Coll. Phytosoc., II, La végétation des landes d'Europe occidentale, Lille 1973 : 361-377.
Haaland, S. (2002). Fem tusen år med flammer, Det europeiske lungheilandskapet. Fagbokforlaget Vigmostad & Bjørke As. (Dutch edition: De Blust, G., H. Diemont & J. Jansen, 2004. Het paarse landschap. KNNV Uitgeverij Utrecht/Mechelen).
Rivas-Martínez, S. 1979. Brezales y jarales de Europa occidental (Revisión fitosociológica de las clases Calluno-Ulicetea y Cisto-Lavanduletea). Lazaroa 1: 5-127.

Criterion A Text:
Although there have been substantial losses (> 40%) in Germany, France, Sweden and Netherlands, stable conditions in Spain and small losses in Ireland and the United Kingdom result in just a small average European trend (-10%), resulting in an overall assessment of Least Concern (LC).

Criterion B Text:
The habitat is widespread across the EU28 and a little beyond with an EOO > 50000 km2 and AOO > than 50 km2.

Criterion C/D Text:
The decline in quality is very uneven across Europe and accurate data are incomplete. The calculation is dominated by returns from the United Kingdom where the extent is considerable but, even there, the situation is somewhat uncertain, and soem assumpations had to be made. The overall assessment is Vulnerable (VU), based on data covering about 59% of reported area. Important data gaps exist for Spain and Ireland.

Synthesis:
Although there have been very large historical losses in extent and widespread declines in quality, stability or lower trends in countries where the extent is large average the European trend to a threat category of Vulnerable (VU), based on negative trends in quality (criterion C/D1). However, data are partly incomplete and uncertain (especially for the UK, Ireland and Spain) and further investigations are needed for a more certain assessment.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Distinctive sub-types of wet heath occur in different parts of its range and these may be subject to varying types and intensities of threat, so deserving separate assessment.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Janssen
Territorial experts: A.B.G. Averis, A.M. Averis, F. Bioret, S. De Saeger, P. Finck, A. Jacobson, J. Loidi, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paelinckx, P. Perrin, F. Philippe, U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Ssymank, W. Van Landuyt,  
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Type Name:
F3.1c Lowland to montane temperate and submediterranean genistoid scrub

Habitat Description:
A few meters high scrubland, dominated by species of the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae),  specifically species of the genera Cytisus, Ulex, Adenocarpus, Genista and/or Retama. The habitat occurs in the temperate, submediterranean and mediterranean region, where it is mainly found on sunny, dry, nutrient-poor, acidic soils, but exceptionally also grows on more base-rich soils. It is in most cases a secondary habitat, forming a stage in the succession from grassland or heathland towards (Quercus) forests and occurring as mantle vegetation along forests. The potential vegetation in the areas of this broom dominated habitat are forests dominated by Quercus pyrenaica, Q. suber, Q. rotundifolia and in more humid areas Q. robur, Q. petraea and Fagus sylvatica. The habitat is associated with agro-pastoral landscapes, and in such environment it may form a threat to heathlands and grasslands, as the shrubs encroach after abandonment of traditional management. Broom species easily germinate in fallow lands on nutrient-poor, mineral soils, where they have good competitive conditions because of the root nodules, containing bacteria that capture atmospheric nitrogen (Rhizobacteria). In Portugal rye cultivation became the major driving force behind the evolution of broom fields and – to a lesser extent – also triggered the development of other vegetation.
Cytisus scoparius may also dominate ruderal sites, like along roads, in dry riverbeds, on cultivated fields, in logged forests or on burned sites. In rocky areas on shallow soils, also primary habitats of this type may be found. In Spain, Portugal and France genistoid scrub can also grow as post-fire vegetation.
In Northwest and Central Europe this is a relatively species poor type, mainly dominated by Cytisus scoparius and – in the Atlantic regions – Ulex europaeus, and with Orobanche rapum-genistae as a characteristic species of the Cytisus scoparius scrub. Further south the type becomes more diverse. In southern Italy (Sicily and Calabria) a community of Adenocarpus brutius (= Adenocarpus complicatus subsp. brutius ) and Cytisus scoparius with many endemics (including Viola aethnensis subsp. messanensis) occurs as secondary vegetation in relatively acidic, mesophilous sites where Fagus sylvatica or Quercus ilex forests are the climax.  In central Italy Adenocarpus complicatus subsp. complicatus forms scrub formations.
The highest diversity however is found on the Iberian Peninsula, where a broad range of high, genistoid shrubs may dominate, depending on the geographical region, elevation and soil conditions. Examples of such shrubs are Cytisus multiflorus, Cytisus striatus (subsp. striatus and subsp. eriocarpus), Cytisus bourgaei (= C. scoparius subsp. bourgaei), Genista cinerescens, Genista florida, Genista hispanica subsp. occidentalis, Genista polyantha, Adenocarpus argyrophyllus, Adenocarpus telonensis, Retama monsperma and Retama sphaerocarpa. These communities in Spain and Portugal are ranked under various denominations such as retamal (dominated by Retama or Adenocarpus species), piornal (Genista-dominated) and escobonal (large brooms, for instance Cytisus).
Almost all communities of the habitat are grouped in the class Cytisetea scopario-striati, although sometimes Cytisus scoparius and Ulex europaeus also participate in the Calluno-Ulicetea or in the Rhamno-Prunetea (the analogue mantle-scrub on richer soils). For the communities in the southeastern Balkan the assignment to classes and alliances has not been worked out yet.
In several other habitat types genistoid shrubs may become dominant. In Atlantic coastal dunes scrub with Cytisus scoparius and Ulex europaeus may be found, but those are part of habitat ‘Atlantic dune scrub’ (B1.6a). Individual shrubs of these two species may grow in a heathland or matorral, for example Ulex europaeus forma maritimus and Cytisus scoparius subsp. maritimus in heathlands on rocky coasts; in such cases the communities should be considered as part of those heathland or matorral habitats. Only if the shrubs form a relatively closed and relatively high community, the habitat type F3.1c is present. In (montane to) subalpine and oromediterranean belts of mountains Cytisus oromediterraneus (=C. purgans) and Echinospartum species form (relatively low) scrub, but those communities (equivalent to HD Annex 1-type 5120) are part of the Oro-Mediterranean habitat type F7.4a (Western Mediterranean mountain hedgehog-heath). The relatively low scrub dominated by Genista hispanica subsp. occidentalis, classified in the class Festuco hystricis-Ononidetea striata, also is considered part of F7.4a.
Indicators of good quality:
The habitat tends to develop a high and relatively closed structure, while trees are absent. However, often the more open patches, mosaics with other habitats, have the highest biodiversity of plant species and animals. Indicators of good quality are:
·      Relatively open scrubland in mosaic with other types;
·      Presence of endemic shrub species;
·      Presence of Orobanche rapum-genistae (Northwestern Europe);
·      Absence of trees.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Adenocarpus anisochilus, Adenocarpus argyrophyllus, Adenocarpus aureus subsp. aureus, Adenocarpus complicatus  subsp. brutius , Adenocarpus complicatus  subsp. complicatus  , Adenocarpus decorticans, Adenocarpus hispanicus (subsp. gredensis, subsp. hispanicus, subsp. neilense), Adenocarpus lainzii, Adenocarpus telonensis, Cytisus cantabricus, Cytisus commutatus, Cytisus ingramii , Cytisus scoparius , Cytisus scoparius ssp. bourgaei, Cytisus grandiflorus ssp. cabezudoi, Cytisus multiflorus, Cytisus striatus (subsp. eriocarpus, subsp. striatus), Dianthus pinifolius, Echinospartum ibericum ssp. ibericum, Genista cinarescens, Genista cinerea subsp. speciosa, Genista florida (subsp. florida, subsp. polygaliphylla), Genista hispanica ssp occidentalis, Genista obtusiramea, Genista polyanthos, Orobanche rapum-genistae, Retama monosperma, Retama sphaerocarpa, Silene frivaldszkyana, Teucrium salviastrum, Ulex europaeus (subsp. europaeus, subsp. latebracteatus).

Classification:
EUNIS:
F3.1 Temperate thickets and scrub
EuroVeg Checklist:
Sarothamnion scoparii Oberd. 1957
Ulici europaei-Cytision striati Rivas-Mart. et al. 1991
Genistion floridae Rivas-Mart. 1974
Cytision multiflori Rivas-Mart. 1974
Retamion sphaerocarpae Rivas-Mart. 1981
Adenocarpion decorticantis (Rivas-Mart. et F. Valle ex F. Valle 1985) Rivas-Mart., Fernández-González et Loidi 1999
Violo messanensis-Adenocarpion intermedii (= Violion messanensis)
Genistion occidentalis Rivas-Martinez In Rivas-Martinez et al. 1984
Annex 1:
no relationship
Emerald:
F5.51G Tall spiny broom brush
F5.56 Thermo-Mediterranean broom fields (retamares)
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
Temperate shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Most of the habitat is found in the Atlantic region and the western part of the Mediterranean biogeographic region.

Map Description:
The map has some data gaps in Portugal and likely in the northern part of the distribution as well. Data sources: EVA, NAT, ART17.

Trends in Quantity:
Based on calculations with the currently available data a slight increase of extent is observed during the past decades (circa +5%). In the calculation the countries with the largest surface areas are included: France (1000-1500 km2), Spain (5857 km2) and Italy (788 km2). Portuguese data refer to mainly high quality genistoid scrub, and probably the total extent is larger than the reported data of 10 km2 (personal communication Dr. Jorge Capelo). Data of France seem also to include formations of Cytisus oromediterraneus, which should be considered under type F7.4a, and therefore it provides an overestimate of the area. For a lot of countries there are no quantitative data available, but it is expected that most of these countries contain relatively small surfaces of the habitat.

Trends in Quality:
There is an overall slight reduction in quality for both the EU28 and EU28+. However the quantitative values do not account for the enormous area of the habitat in Spain, which contributes over 70% to the total amount. For a lot of other countries no data are available, but in most cases they do not have large surfaces. In many countries a decrease of biotic quality or both biotic and abiotic has been reported.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
80-90%. A small part lies in EU28+ and probably also outside the EU28+.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is widespread in Europe, with a core distribution on the Iberian peninsula, but expanding in northern and eastern direction towards Denmark and Croatia.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is rather broadly defined, including many sub-types/ plant communities and species. Some of these subtypes/ plant communities are restricted to small natural ranges. All together summarized they occupy large areas.

Pressures and Threats:
Most important threats and pressures that have been reported are: (1) Abandonment of pastoral systems (this is a support for the habitat for the short-time, but a threat on longer periods); (2) Abandonment of crop production; (3) Artificial planting on open ground (non-native trees); (4) Species composition change (succession); and (5) Burning down (also this is both a threat as a support for the habitat).

Conservation and Management:
Most important challenges for conservation of the habitat are (1) to maintain traditional land use to a certain extent, and (2) to develop natural forests with natural mantle vegetation.

Conservation Status:
There is no good relationship with Annex I-types.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
In just a few years the habitat can recover both naturally and through intervention. In general Genista and Cytisus have a high germination capacity and develop rather fast. However it is more difficult to estimate wether the quality of the habitat will recover so fast. This depends on the sub-type. In case of rather high species composition of an intact plant community, the germination capacity of species other than Genisteae may be lower.

Summary:
This habitat comprises scrub dominated by woody leguminous shrubs occurring through the temperate, submediterranean and mediterranean zones in sunny situations, mostly on dry, nutrient-poor, acidic soils, with a main occurrence on the Iberian peninsula. It can be a primary colonist on rocky sites but in most cases is a secondary habitat, forming a successional stage between grassland or heath towards forest, or be more or less persistent along forest margins and in less intensively managed open pastures and along waysides. Usually the associated flora is heathy but, where the substrate is more base-rich, a calcicolous grassland element occurs. Continuing succession or abandonment and changes in land use to forest or arable cultuvation are the main threats. Recovery of the habitat seems rather easy, both naturally and by management measurements.

References:
Pintos-Gomes, C., Cano-Ortiz, A., Quinto-Canas, R., Vila-Vicosa, C. & Martíne Lombardo, M.C. 2012. Analysis of the Cytisetea scopario-striati scrubs in the south-west-centre of the Iberian Peninsula. Acta Botanica Gallica 159(2): 251-266.
Rivas-Martínez, S., Belmonte, D., Cantó, P., Fernández González, F. de la Fuente V., Moreno, J.M., Sánchez-Mata, D. and Sancho, L.G. 1987. Piornales, enebrales y pinares oromediterráneos (Pino-Cytision oromediterranei) en el Sistema Central. Lazaroa 7: 93-124

Criterion A Text:
Based on territorial data the trends in the EU28 and EU28+ have been calculated to be about +5%. France and Spain only reported an increase, but no quantitative data. As these countries contain the largest amounts of the habitat, it has been calculated with an increase of about 5-10% for these countries. Inlcuding these data, the calculation covers more than 90% of the extent of the habitat. Of the countries outside the EU28 only Switzerland reported data, however the surface in other countries outside the EU28 is expected to be relatively marginal.
It is assumed that the extent of this habitat will further increase or at least will not decrease because of a major general trend, triggered by the unfavourable economic situation. In large parts of Europe the country-side experiences a huge exodus of the rural population. As a result there is bioaccumulation in large areas, including scrub encroachment. Consequently there is an increase of fire hazards such as wildfires both in forest plantations and shrublands. This may cause a regression of natural succession and favour the growth of shrub formations amongst others those dominated by genistoid species. Also the abandonment of traditional land use may trigger the growth of genistoid scrub such as shrublands dominated by Cytisis multiflorus in formerly used rye fields in Portugal. Because of these trends also the future trend in quantity (A2a) is assessed to be positive.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has a large AOO and EOO and a high number of locations and does not meet the thresholds for criteria B1, B2 or B3.

Criterion C/D Text:
The calculation is based on an area of 2300 km2, only about 28% of the total surface. The values lead to the category Least Concern (LC) as the thresholds for Vulnerable (VU) are not met. The category Near Threatened (NT) could be considered, as the 46% severity is above one of the two combined thresholds for Vulnerable. However, if - based on best expert judgement - assumptions are made for the data gaps in Spain and Portugal (10-20% area affected, severity 10%) this results in much lower values (13-20% affected, 14-21% severity), which indicates that a final assessment of Least Concern is most appropriate.

Synthesis:
The Red List assessment, based on all provided data with some assumptions for important data gaps, leads to the conclusion that habitat F1.3c qualifies for the category Least Concern (LC) regarding trends in quantity and quality.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat is rather broadly defined. It may be subdivided into several subtypes, based on dominant shrub species and total species composition. However, so far the syntaxonomic documentation of important areas in Spain, Portugal and France is rather

Contributors:
Type description: J.A.M. Janssen & J. Jansen
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, C. Bita-Nicolae, J.A. Campos, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, R. Delarze, , P. Finck, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, R. Haveman, J. Janssen, N. Juvan, , J.J. Kirby, C. Marcenò, A. Mikolajczak, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, S. Sciandrello, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani


Habitat Description:
Scrub vegetation dominated by xerophytic chamaephytes, mostly of cushion-shaped, nano-phanerophytes and sometimes tuffed perennial grasses and hemicryptophytes, on shallow or eroded soils derived from rocks with alkaline reaction of the western Mediterranean subregion. Common substrata are limestone (calcium carbonate rich), dolomitic (magnesium carbonate rich) and ultramafic rocks with alkaline reaction. The habitat type F6.1a is, in most cases, seral vegetation stage following degradation of zonal forests distributed from the thermo to meso-mediterranean, seldom to the low supra-mediterranean, semi-arid to sub-humid vegetation belts. In rocky outcrops or crests it may have a permanent character and form the climax vegetation. Also in semi-arid regions, such as those in the Murcia-Almerian province, it may stand as permanent vegetation in large areas.
The habitat is frequently dominated by shrubs of the families Labiatae and Fabaceae of neomediterranean character. It comprises a broad diversity of plant communities, especially in Spain, and includes many local endemic taxa, thus having a high conservation value. This vegetation has historically expanded its area due to soil erosion after the destruction of woodlands for agriculture and cattle grazing. It may also be promoted by wildfires, as most plants are R-strategist seeders and fire-prone. The biogeographic and bioclimatic variability allows the recognition of three subgroups (vegetation orders): Rosmarinetalia (dry to subhumid central and west Iberian limestone), Antyllidetalia terniflorae (semi-arid limestone and marl Murcia-Almerian province) and Convolvuletalia boissieri (dolomite and ultramafic), containing in total thirteen alliances.
As basiphilous garrigues have enormous syntaxonomic and floristic diversity in the western Mediterranean, some degree of interpretation is needed. We follow the concept of Mucina et al. (2014) with several modifications. The core concept is that of chamaephyte- and nano- phanerophyte-dominated scrub on eroded or thin soils in substrata with alkaline reaction, either derived from limestone, dolomitic (rich in magnesium carbonate)  or sometimes ultramafic rock, in thermo-mediterranean and meso-mediterranean belts. The vegetation corresponds to a large part of the class Rosmarinetea officinalis (in the sense of Rivas-Martínez et al., 1991, = Ononido-Rosmarinetea in Mucina et al.) and mostly to the widespread dry to sub-humid order Rosmarinetalia. Also the semi-arid limestone communities of the Murcia-Almerian province (order Anthyllidetalia terniflorae) are included. Gypsum communities (order Gipsophylletalia) are excluded (included in F6.7), but magnesium-prone ones are included (order Convolvuletalia boissieri). The equivalent habitats in west european calcareous mountains, mostly in supra and oro-mediterranean thermotypes, sometimes in sub-mediterranean temperate bioclimate are excluded and systematized in F6.6, F6.7 and F7.4. By the same reasoning all hedgehog heath (order Erinacetalia anthylis) is excluded and belongs to F7.4. The following syntaxa, in many cases ascribed to Rosmarinetea are thus excluded from F6.1a: Erysimo-Jurinetalia bocconei (F7.4b), Festuco-Ononidetalia striatae (F74.a). Also, not following Mucina et al., mountain garrigues of the following alliances are excluded: Polygalo-Genistion corsicae, Helianthemo-Aphyllantion monspeliensis (F6.6), Alyssion bertolonii (F7.4a), Artemisio albae-Saturejion montanae (F7.4a), Lavandulo latifoliae-Genistion (Echinospartion) boissieri (F6.6), Siderito incanae-Salvio lavandulifoliae (F6.6). However Cisto eriocephali-Ericion multiflorae is included to stand for an Italo- Thyrrenean irradiation of the east-mediterranean Cisto-Micromerietea class or otherwise considered in Rosmarinetea (West Mediterranean). Garrigues in limestone sea-cliffs (order Helichrysetalia italici) are excluded and classifiable in either F7.1-2 (west Mediterranean coastal garrigues) or B3.1-3b (Mediterranean and Black Sea rocky shores).
Indicators of good quality:
Apart from  the primary ecological niches of the habitat  (crests and rocky outcrops), it’s presence is s dependent on disturbances of low to moderate degree;  otherwise, it is expected to  be substituded along the  succession process by  forest communities. Although such processes are slow or even ‘locked’ by persistence of disturbance or feeble water capacity, the whole mosaic of garrigues and other habitats (grasslands, forests) in dry sub-humid types with shallow soils should be balanced by active management (burning or traditional agriculture and grazing). At its permanent positions on  rock crests no management is required for the conservation of the habitat. Species rich, “saturated” variations of the habitat need the emphasis to be given on conservation, while  the species-poor pioneer stages  are of lower conservation value but potentially these evolve into more species rich communities.. Another indicator of the habitat’s good quality is the presence of the majority of its local characteristic species.
Characteristic species:
Flora, Vascular plants:  
Anthyllis cytisoides, Anthyllis gandogeri, Aphyllanthes monspeliensis, Argyrolobium zanonii, Asperula brachysiphon, Astragalus chlorocyaneus, Astragalus granatensis, Atractylis humilis, Bupleurum fruticescens, Cephalaria leucantha, Cheirolophus intybaceus, Cistus albidus, Convolvulus lanuginosus, Coris monspeliensis, Coronilla lotoides, Coronilla minima subsp. minima,  Digitalis obscura, Dorycnium pentaphyllum, Elaoselinum tenuifolium, Fumana ericoides, Fumana hispidula, Fumana procumbens subsp. procumbens, Fumana thymifolia, Globularia alypum, Helianthemum syriacum, Helianthemum violaceum, Hippocrepis squamata, Koeleria vallesiana, Ononis angustifolia, Picris hispanica, Rosmarinus officinalis, Sideritis incana, Staehelina dubia, Thesium divaricatum, Thymelaea ruizii, Thymus vulgaris,Valeriana tuberosa,  Aristolochia pistolochia, Astragalus alopecuroides, Astragalus glaux, Catananche caerulea, Centaurea pinae, Cephalaria leucantha, Cistus clusii, Cytinus ruber, Dianthus hispanicus, Elaeoselinum hispanicum, Euphorbia flavicoma, Euphorbia hispanica, Euphorbia isatidifolia, Euphorbia nicaeensis, Fritillaria boissieri, Fumana montana, Fumana laevipes, Fumana laevis, Globularia vulgaris, Halimium atriplicifolium, Hedysarum europaeum, Helianthemum apenninum subsp. apenninum, Helianthemum asperum, Helianthemum cinereum subsp. rotundifolium, Helianthemum rotundifolium, Helianthemum croceum subsp.  stoechadifolium, Helianthemum hirtum, Helianthemum marifolium, Hippocrepis bourgaei, Iberis nazarita, Klasea leucantha, Klasea pinnatifida, Lavandula latifolia, Leuzea conifera, Linaria aeruginea, Linum suffruticosum, Lithodora fruticosa, Ononis minutissima, Ononis pusilla, Onosma hispanica, Orobanche latisquama, Paronychia aretioides, Rosmarinus palaui, Ruta chalepensis, Satureja barceloi, Satureja obovata, Scorzonera hispanica subsp. crispatula, Serratula flavescens subsp. leucantha, Serratula pinnatifida, Sideritis fruticulosa, Teucrium bicoloreum, Teucrium capitatum, , Teucrium hanseleri, Thymelaea elliptica, Thymelaea tinctoria, Viola arborescens, Cistus creticus, Genista corsica, Centaurea caballeroi, Centaurea dufourii, Cistus creticus, Cytinus pityusensis, Dianthus multiceps, Dianthus pungens, Erica multiflora, Genista dorycnifolia, Genista lucida, Genista trichoacantha, Guillonea scabra, Helianthemum caput-felis, Helianthemum cavanillesianum, Helianthemum molle, Helianthemum origanifolium, Hippocrepis fruticescens, Lavandula dentata, Ononis microphylla, Polygala rupestris, Satureja nervosa, Satureja rodriguezii, Sideritis albicaulis, Sideritis cardoana, Sideritis tragoriganum, Teucrium integrifolium, Teucrium spinescens, Teucrium x coeleste, Thymelaea sanamunda, Thymus aestivus, Ulex parviflorus, Vincetoxicum apodum, Aristolochia bianorii, Centaurea antennata, Lotus tetraphyllus, Phlomis italica, Satureja innota, Teucrium album, Anthyllis lagascana, Anthyllis onobrychioides, Arenaria pseudarmeriastrum, Centaurea rouyi, Dianthus fontqueri, Salvia mariolensis, Satureja valentina, Teucrium homotrichum, Thymelaea argentata, Thymelaea valentina, Thymus piperella, Dianthus contestanus, Linaria hegelmaieri, Thymelaea velutina, Genista pillosa subsp. jordanii, Cistus creticus subsp. eriocephalus, Dorycnium hirsutum, Fumana arabica, Micromeria nervosa, Teucrium flavum, Thymelaea tartonraira, Cytisus plumosus, Helianthemum andalusicum, Helianthemum hirtum subsp. bethuricum, Hyacinthoides vicentina subsp. vicentina, Iberis microcarpa, Klasea neglecta, Rosmarinus xmendizabali, Satureja micrantha, Sideritis lusitanica, Sideritis grandiflora, Sideritis reverchonii, Teucrium eriocephalum, Teucrium rixanense, Thymbra capitata, Thymus longiflorus, Thymus lotocephalus, Ulex scaber, Asperula hirsute, Genista hirsuta subsp. algarbiensis, Staureja graeca subsp. micrantha, Serratula baetica subsp. lusitanica, Sideritis algarviensis subsp. lusitanica, Teucrium algarbiensis, Teucrium lusitanicum, Thymus lotocephalus, Biscutella vicentina, Sideritis algarviensis subsp. algarviensis, Teucrium vicentinum, Ulex erinaceus, Bartsia aspera, Iberis procumbens subsp. microcarpa, Serratula estremadurensis, Sideritis hirsuta subsp. hirtula, Thymus zygis subsp. sylvestris, Ulex densus, Armeria platyphylla, Galium balearicum, Hypericum ericoides, Sideritis sericea, Vincetoxicum balearicum, Anthyllis balearica, Astragalus balearicus, Euphorbia balearica, Genista valdesbermejoi, Helichrysum microphyllum, Hypericum balearicum, Linaria pruinosa, Ononis crispa, Sonchus willkommii, Teucrium subspinosum, Anthyllis terniflora, Anthyllis xmedia, Astragalus hispanicus, Centaurea intybacea, Cistus carthaginensis, Convolvulus sericeus, Coris rivasiana, Elaeoselinum tenuifolium, Helianthemum cinereum, Helianthemum hispidulum, Helianthemum scopulorum, Hippocrepis scabra, Klasea mucronata, Linum jimenezii, Onobrychis stenorhiza, Paronychia suffruticosa, Satureja canescens, Sideritis murgetana,Teucrium gracillimum, Teucrium murcicum, Thymus hyemalis, Centaurea spachii, Fumana fontanesii, Helianthemum almeriense, Helianthemum guerrae, Helianthemum marminorense, Matthiola rigualii, Sideritis chamaedryfolia, Sideritis ibanyezii, Sideritis pusilla, Teucrium carthaginense, Thymus ciliatus, Thymus murcicus, Sideritis leucantha, Teucrium carolipaui, Thymus xdiazii, Vella lucentina, Dianthus charidemi, Sideritis osteoxyla, Sideritis granatensis, Teucrium cavanillesianum, Teucrium charidemi, Teucrium almeriense, Teucrium hieronymi, Teucrium xguemesii, Teucrium xportusmagni, Anabasis articulata, Diplotaxis intricata, Euzomodendron bourgeanum, Herniaria almeriana, Limonium album, Limonium carthaginense, Limonium estevei, Limonium tabernense, Moricandia foetida, Salsola papillosa, Sideritis alhamillensis, Teucrium lanigerum, Helianthemum hieronymi, Sideritis bourgaeana, Sideritis leucantha subsp. incana, Sideritis pauciflora, Sideritis serrata, Teucrium franchetianum, Teucrium martinii, Thymus antoninae, Thymus funkii, Thymus xparadoxus, Anthyllis polycephala, Anthyllis ramburii, Anthyllis tejedensis, Centaurea granatensis, Convolvulus boissieri, Digitalis laciniata, Erodium astragaloides, Festuca plicata, Fumana baetica, Fumana paradoxa, Helianthemum suffruticosum, Helianthemum neopiliferum, Helianthemum pannosum, Helianthemum raynaudii, Hippocrepis eriocarpa, Onobrychis argentea, Ononis cephalotes, Pterocephalus spathulatus, Thymus granatensis, Andryala agardhii, Anthyllis rupestris, Arenaria caesia, Arenaria racemosa, Arenaria tomentosa, Armeria trevenqueana, Armeria longiaristata, Centaurea genesii-lopezii, Chamaespartium undulatum, Erodium boissieri, Erysimum cazorlense, Festuca segimonensis, Globularia spinosa, Hedysarum costaetalentis, Helianthemum frigidulum, Jasione segurensis, Leucanthemopsis spathulifolia, Lithodora nitida, Rothmaleria granatensis, Santolina elegans, Scabiosa pulsatilloides, Scorzonera albicans, Silene tejedensis, Alyssum atlanticum, Anthyllis plumosa, Arenaria delaguardiae, Cistus parviflorus, Digitalis integrifolia, Erysimum rondae, Helianthemum estevei, Helianthemum viscidulum, Lavandula lanata, Sideritis arborescens, Sideritis occidentalis, Teucrium reverchonii, Teucrium serranum, Thymelaea angustifolia, Thymus baeticus, Thymus sabulicola, Alyssum malacitanum, Armeria carratracensis, Centaurea carratracensis, Genista lanuginosa, Halimium serpentinicola, Klasea baetica, Scorzonera baetica, Staehelina baetica, Ulex baeticus.

Classification:
EUNIS:
F6.1 Western garrigues
EuroVegChecklist:
Cisto cretici-Genistion corsicae
Rosmarinion officinalis (=Rosmarino-Ericion multiflorae)
Cisto eriocephali-Ericion multiflorae
Eryngio trifidi-Ulicion erinacei (=Saturejo-Thymbrion capitatae)
Ulici densi-Thymion sylvestris
Hypericion balearici
Hypericion ericoidis
Thymo moroderi-Siderition leucanthae
Anthyllido terniflorae-Salsolion papilosae
Siderition bourgaeanae
Andryalion agardhi
Lavandulion lanatae
Stahelino-Ulicion baetici
Annex 1:
- (small parts overlap with 5330 and 5140)
Emerald:
F5.5B Cabo da Sao Vicente brushes
MAES-2:
Heathland and scrub
IUCN:
3.8 Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type is exclusively occurring on basic soils  in the Western part of the Mediterranean region (SW Europe) subjected to Mediterranean macro-bioclimatic conditions.

Map Description:
Map is complete for Spain, but Portuguese, French and Italian occurrences are missing. Data source: NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
The total calculation yields a slight decrease value in quantity: -3,2%, which in practical terms corresponds to a stable condition within the 50 years’ time.. Nevertheless, the recorded situation is heterogeneous among the SW European  countries: Portugal reports an increase of 83%,   Italy and Spain refer a slight decrease ('stable' and -5% decrease respectively) in the habitat’s area. This is probably to the fact that Portugal retained the agricultural subsidies for cultivations on marginal lands until long after the other two countries.. After setting aside the  EU CAP policy, the garrigues  expanded much.. Slight regression in Spain and Italy is assumed to be due to successional processes towards  pre-forest and/or  forest communities.  Stability is expected to represent the future prospects of the habitat’s area.

Trends in Quality:
Spain and Italy (with the remaining countries reporting 'unknown') report a slight decrease in habitat quality (-5 and 10% respectively) with a slight severity, so assesors estimate that future trends are of stabillization. Global proportion of habitat with decreased quality in EU is calulated in 4,76% with 'slight' severity in trends for quality (50 years). Thus, in pratical terms, also for future prospects are of stable condition, as assesors take it.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The habitat is distributed in both European and North African areas in the Western Mediterranean Subregion in soils derived of rocks with high pH (limestone, dolomite, mafic rocks). In Europe, the habitat stretches from Portugal to the Thyreenean coast of Italy. Along the North African coast, its range is from the Tingitanian peninsula (Tanger, Morroco) in the west, includes the subcoastal areas of Algeria and Tunisia and reaches, in the east, the Cyrenaica peninsula in Lybia (Al Akhdar). We estimate that approximately 50% of the habitat is within the EU28 and the remaining 50% is on North Africa.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO>>  50.000 Km2 and the AOO>> 50  (10 x 10 km grid cells size) implies that habitat range does not qualify as 'small'.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is distributed throughout the whole of SW Europe and is relatively abundant within the range.

Pressures and Threats:
in the past, the basiphilous garrigues have been associated with low-intensity agriculture. Therefore, possible intensification of the agricultural system- mostly by shortening or eliminating the fallow period - could be locally negative to garrigues. Also, afforestation in abandoned fields affects the occurrence of this type of garrigues. Urbanization and touristic expansion have affected some areas of former basiphilous garrigue. As most plants in the habitat are fire-prone (pyrophytes), the lack of fire might facilitate the vegetation sucession  towards pre-forest and forest communities.

Conservation and Management:
For best conservation management measures and results, the maintenance  of a balanced proportion of low-intensity agriculture with long fallow periods (by implementing agro-environmental policies) is suggested.
When designing management meaures in the context of local and regional policies, the local and regional variants of the habitat type  (F6.1b) with the possible peculiarities in species and endemic/rare/threatened  species composition should be taken in account.. The most effective way of implementing different conservation measures depending on the conservation value of the different sub-types  of the same habitat type is to use their species composition for different legal conservation status and actions.
Micro-reserves or other designation regimes sites network could safeguard, , even in agricultural territories,  the preservation of all the constituent flora species and mature status of the habitat. The short fallow periods implie that habitats are always kept in early succession stages characterized  by a low number of  species (pioneer species). In conservation oriented agricultural land, i.e. managed to include also conservation objectives, the maintenance of a proportion of land with longer fallow period (thus allowing succession and species saturation of the habitat) is suggested.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat is a meta-stable successional stage following agricultural abandonment, long fallow period or a time period between wildfires. If succession is allowed, it is expected that after a period of 10 to 20 years, a species 'saturated' stage (beyond the pioneer stages)  could  be achieved and kept stable for a long while. Afterwards, in soils less shallow, the vegetation succession is expected to progress to pre-forest/forest stages.

Summary:
This is scrub vegetation dominated by xerophytic sub-shrubs, mats and cushion plants, tufted grasses and herbs on shallow or eroded soils derived from basic and ultramafic rocks through the low intensity agricultural landscapes of the western Mediterranean. On rocky outcrops or crests and in semi-arid regions, it may be permanent climax vegetation but, in most cases, it replaces a range of degraded forests and the vegetation shows enormous floristic diversity across its range. For such a fire-prone habitat, the current infrequency of burning can allow succession to forest and other threats are agricultural intensification, afforestation, urbanization and touristic expansion in some areas. Low intensity agriculture with long fallow periods is needed for conservation.

References:
Bardat, J. e tal. 2004. Podrome des végétations de France. MNHN. 171 pp.
Biondi, E. & Blasi, C. 2014. Podromo della vegetazione d’ Italia. Check-list sintassonomica aggiornata di classi, ordini e alleanze presenti in Italia. http://www.prodromo-vegetazione-italia.org/ [accessed 08.10.14].
Costa, J.C., et al. 2012. Vascular Plant Communities in Portugal (continental, Azores & Madeira) Global Geobotany 2: 1 -180.
Mucina, L. et al. 2014. Vegetation of Europe: hierarquical classification system of vascular plant, briophyte, lichen and algal communities. [ined.]
Rivas Goday, S. & Rivas-Martínez, S. (1967) Matorrales y tomillares de la peninsula Iberica comprendidos en la clase Ononido-Rosmarinetea Br.-Bl. 1947. Anales del Instituto BotaÌnico A.J. Cavanilles. vol. 25, 1967, pp. 1-197
Rivas-Martínez et al. (1991) Festuco hystricis-Ononidetea striatae y Rosmarinetea officinalis clases de vegetación independientes. Itinera Geobotanica 5: 505-516.
Rivas-Martínez, S. 2011. Mapa de séries, geoséries y geopermaséries de vegetación de España.  Parte II Itinera Geobotanica 18(1): 5-425.

Criterion A Text:
During the past 50-years period there are substantial differences among the SW European countries, although the average reduction is small (-3,2%). All future prospects are taken to be stable. Historical variation is unknown.

Criterion B Text:
The 'default' values for EOO and AOO are taken to be true (in fact much greater than the threshold values). No relevant (<5%) decrease has been calculated; thus it could be encompassed within the uncertainty of estimations and  considered as 'stable'. 'Stable' condition is expected for all future time-frames.

Criterion C/D Text:
Globally, as a result of sucessional progression due to agricultural abandonment a slight (0,3) quality reduction in average 4,76% of the habitat area is estimated, based on territorial information.

Synthesis:
A stable or a very slight reduction in quantity and quality since the last 50 year, mostly due to vegetation succession as a result of the land abandonment, result in a Least Concern (LC) assessment. The future prospects for the habitat are also assessed as stable both in the EU28 and EU28+ countries. In spite of the habitat’s abundant occurrence and the absence of relevant threats, the wide local variation of the habitat type should be taken into account when designing and implementing management practices. The habitat is very species-rich and contains many narrow endemics amongst which many threatened species.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
This is a very heterogeneous habitat with a high local/regional variability in species composition, including many endemics. Therefore many regional subtypes may be distinguished and assessed individually.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Capelo & D. Espírito-Santo
Territorial experts: J. Capelo, M.D. Espírito-Santo, J.A. Campos, E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, L. Casella, G. Giusso Del Galdo, C. Marcenò, D. Viciani
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Type Name:
A5.6_PT01  Neopycnodonte cochlear beds on exposed and tide-swept circalittoral rocks and cobbles

Habitat Description:
This habitat occurs in the circalittoral zone on both hard and mixed substrates. It has been recorded in exposed and tide-swept sites at depths of 60 - 150m in the Faial-Pico channel and the Formigas Bank in the Azores and in deeper waters on the upper slope of the Bay of Biscay between 200-500m. Sessile macrofauna is dominated by the oyster Neopycnodonte cochlear and the clam Chama circinata.  Some variance has been observed in the abundance of the two species although in shallower zones it may be exclusively Neopycnodonte . On hard substrates the two species growing together may build up to form a calcareous bioherm. The habitat has also been observed on mixed carbonate-volcanoclastic sediment plains where the two species form cobble to small-boulder sized clumps. N. cochlear is able to create thick mantles, serving as hard substrate for other species including foraminifera, bryozoan, ascidians, coral and sponges.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
The overall quality and continued occurrence of this habitat is dependent on the presence of the predominate structural species, the oyster Neopycnodonte cochlear and the clam Chama circinata species which create the biogenic structural complexity on which the associated species depend. The density and the maintenance of viable populations of these species are therefore likely to be a key indicator of habitat quality, together with the visual evidence of presence or absence of physical damage.
Characteristic species:
Species reported to be present on clumps  formed by N. cochlear and C.circinata include the serpulids Spirobranchus polytrema, Hydroides azoricus and a variety of bryozoans (Crisia sp., Omalosecosa sp., Hippothoa sp. and Reteporella sp.). In its deepest reaches (150m) the assemblage shows a higher abundance of associated sponges and hydrozoans. Other species of serpulids (Filograna gracilis and Hyalopomatus cf. marenzelleri) and bryozoans (Puellina sp. and Celleporina sp.) have been recorded in the assemblage. Other associated fauna includes various clams, holothurians and echinoids (Centrostephanus longispinus).

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Recommended new Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Infralittoral biogenic reef’ (A5.6).
 
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs                                                                                                                                                
 
MAES:
Marine – Coastal       
 
MSFD:
Shelf sublittoral sediment (coarse, sand, mud, mixed)  
Shelf sublittoral rock and biogenic reef  
 
EUSeaMap:
Shelf coarse or mixed sediments
Shelf rock or biogenic reef
 
IUCN:
9.2.  Subtidal rock and rocky reefs
9.3. Subtidal loose rock/pebble/gravel

Map Description:
There is insufficient data to provide a comprehensive accurate map of the distribution of this habitat. This map has been generated using EMODnet data from modelled/surveyed records for the North East Atlantic (and supplemented with expert opinion where applicable) (EMODnet 2010). EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this is not the full distribution of the habitat.

Trends in Quantity:
This habitat is insufficiently studied to quantify its extent and any recent or historical trends in quantity. Future trends have not been estimated.

Trends in Quality:
This habitat is insufficiently studied to quantify its extent and any recent or historical trends in quality. Future trends have not been estimated.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The full distribution of this habitat is not known. A similar habitat occurs in other regional seas (The Mediterranean) and also in deeper water where a different species of oyster dominates.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
Known locations of this habitat indicate that it does not have a small natural range, even though the figures given are likely to be an underestimate. There is insufficient information to determine any trends over the last 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
Known locations of this habitat indicate that it does not have a small natural range, even though the figures given are likely to be an underestimate.

Pressures and Threats:
This habitat may be affected by demersal fishing gears such as trawls that physically impact the bottom and break the oyster shells growing on bedrock or displaces/removes the oyster clumps. Polluted water discharges and dredge disposals may also have lethal or sub-lethal effects.

Conservation and Management:
Conservation measures which prevent damage to the seabed where this habitat occurs will be beneficial. These include regulation of demersal fisheries, establishment of Marine Protected Areas (with regulation or prohibition of demersal fisheries) and measures to maintain water quality.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
There is insufficient information to determine the recovery capacity of this habitat although shallow water oyster species are generally fast growing and relatively short lived (less than 20 years).

Summary:
This habitat occurs in the circalittoral zone on both hard and mixed substrates. It has been recorded in exposed and tide-swept sites at depths of 60 - 150m in the Faial-Pico channel and the Formigas Bank in the Azores, as well as in deeper waters on the upper slope of the Bay of Biscay between 200-500m. Its full distribution in the North East Atlantic is not known. The sessile macrofauna is dominated by the oyster Neopycnodonte cochlear and the clam Chama circinata,  and the two species growing together may build up to form a calcareous bioherm.  N. cochlear is able to create thick mantles, serving as hard substrate for other species including foraminifera, bryozoan, ascidians, coral and sponges.
Conservation measures which prevent damage to the seabed where this habitat occurs will be beneficial. These include regulation or prohibition of demersal fisheries both within and outside Marine Protected Areas. Polluted water discharges and dredge disposal may have lethal or sub-lethal effects therefore water quality management is also important.

References:
OCEANA. 2014. The seamounts of the Gorringe Bank. Available at: http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/oceana_the_seamounts_of_the_gorringe_bank_2014.pdf. (Accessed: 13/10/2014).
Van Rooij, D., De Mol, L., Le Guilloux, E , Wisshak, M., Huvenne, V.A.I., Moeremans, R. & Henriet, J.-P. 2010. Environmental setting of deep-water oysters in the Bay of Biscay. Deep Sea Research. Part I. Oceanographic Research Papers 57(12):1561-1672. 
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P., Gomes-Pereira, J., and Gonçalves, J. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Wisshak, M., Neumann, C., Jakobsen, J., Freiwald, A. 2009. The “living-fossil community” of the cyrtocrinid Cyanthidium foresti and the deep-sea oyster Neopycnodonte zibrowii (Azores Archipelago). Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 271: 77-83.
Wisshak, M., Form, A., Jakobsen, J. & Freiwald, A. 2010. Temperate carbonate cycling and water mass properties from intertidal to bathyal depth (Azores). Biogeosciences 7: 2379-2396.

Criterion A Text:
There is insufficient information on the  extent of this habitat to determine historical or current trends in quantity. This habitat is therefore assessed as Data Deficient under criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000 km2  this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. The AOO is less than 50 but is known to be an underestimate. Trends are unknown. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criterion B1, and Data Deficient under criteria B2 & B3.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a widespread distribution (EOO >50,000 km2 ) and although not reported to occur in many locations (AOO <50) it is unlikely that the available data cover its full distribution. Because of the lack of information on area and any trends in quantity and quality expert opinion is this habitat should be considered Data Deficient for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Assessors:
R. Haroun Tabraue, F. Otero-Ferrer, S. Gubbay and N. Sanders.

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group. S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F. Otero-Ferrer, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun, N. Sanders.


Habitat Type Name:
A1.24 Macaronesian communities of eulittoral rock moderately exposed to wave action

Habitat Description:
This intertidal habitat occurs on rocky shores in areas moderately exposed to wave action. It is found throughout Macaronesia in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. The associated biotopes develop in response to the combined effects of little wave action, variations in atmospheric pressure, wind and tide and typically include turf forming macroalgae biotopes.
In Azores, this habitat is represented by a proposed new biotope A1.2X_PT01 Rhodymenia pseudopalmata in association with Gigartina acicularis on moderately exposed to sheltered lower eulittoral. In the case of the southern Macaronesian archipelagos, a more diverse sub-set of habitats are recognised in the eulittoral platforms.  
Indicators of Quality
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
In the southern Macaronesian archipelagos characteristic species include Littorina spp., cyanobacteria colonies, Chthamalus stellatus & Ch. montagnii, Fucus guiyri, Gelidium pusillum and Caulacanthus ustulatus, Hincksia mitchelliae and a mixture of turf-forming macroalgal biotopes composed by Alsidium corallinum, Laurencia spp., Palisada spp., Osmundea spp., Polysiphonia spp., Ceramium spp. and Digenea simplex

Classification:
EUNIS:
Level 4 (v1405). A sub-habitat of ‘Moderate energy littoral rock’ (A1.2) with modification to include Macaronesia.
 
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock & biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
 
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
There is insufficient information about this habitat to comment on whether it is an outstanding example of the North East Atlantic region.

Trends in Quantity:
There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As the habitat occurs in the littoral zone which is subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification, for example as a result of eutrophication, it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Trends in Quality:
This habitat occurs in moderately exposed parts of the rocky littoral zone of the Macaronesian islands. Such areas are particularly vulnerable to loss and degradation as a result of coastal development and poor water quality.  This is apparent particularly on the north and south west coast of Gran Canaria Island (e.g. Punta de Galdar and La Cometa, respectively).  Although there is insufficient information to determine historical  or current trends it is considered likely that the habitat may suffer a fairly substantial decline in quality in the future.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This is defined as a Macaronesian habitat therefore 100% is hosted by EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it occurs in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it occurs in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threat to this habitat is related to the high iintensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades, particularly on the north and south west coast of Gran Canaria Island (e.g. Punta de Galdar and La Cometa, respectively). Harbour construction, tourism resorts, and poor management of waste disposal and sewage discharge have exerted significant pressures on habitats in the littoral zone. The increase of international maritime traffic in the harbours of the main cities of the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance work may potentially lead to the introduction of marine exotic species. The ecological effects of such species on Macaronesian habitats have not been evaluated.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is included within some Marine Protected Areas where there are associated management measures, regulations and codes of conduct although not necessarily targeting this specific habitat. Regulation of coastal development, improved management of discharges to the marine environment and controls on the potential introduction of invasive species are other measures that could benefit this habitat.

Summary:
This is a habitat of moderately exposed rocky shores of all the Macaronesian islands (the Azores, Canary Islands and Madeira). The associated communities, which are typically turf-forming macroalgae biotopes, develop in response to the combined effects of little wave action, variations in atmospheric pressure, wind and tide with the dominant aspect being the constant humidity of the substratum. There is a large diversity of floral and faunal components. 
The main pressures and threats are destruction or modification of the habitat as a result of coastal development particularly on the north and south west coast of Gran Canaria Island (e.g. Punta de Galdar and La Cometa, respectively). These include the construction of harbours and tourist resorts which can extend across the intertidal zone or affect the wave exposure. Waste disposal and sewage discharges to the marine environment are other activities which can damage or degrade the biotopes associated with this habitat. More recently, oil-platform maintenance works are a potential entrance vector for marine exotic species although any ecological effects on Macaronesia habitats have not been yet evaluated.
Beneficial measures include the regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as controls on the introduction of invasive species. Marine Protected Areas which include this habitat can act as a focus for the introduction of such measures.

References:
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 12/08/2014).
Gil-Rodríguez, M. C., Fujii, M. T., Machín-Sánchez, M., Cassano,V., Aylagas, E. & Sentíes, A. 2012. Los géneros_Laurencia, Laurenciella y Palisada (Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta) en las Islas Canarias. In: Monografías_ficológicas (Sentíes, A. & Dreckmann, K.M., editors). UAM-Iztapalapa, México_y Universidad de la Laguna 4:43–110.
Haroun R, Gil-Rodríguez MC, Wildpret de la Torre W, Prud’homme van Reine W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. Las Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.
Machín-Sánchez, M., Le Gall, L., Neto, A. I., Rousseau, F., Cassano, V., Sentíes, A., Fujii, M. T., Díaz-Larrea, J., Prud'homme van Reine, W. F., Bonillo, C. & Gil-Rodríguez, M. C. 2014a. A combined barcode and morphological approach to the systematics and biogeography of Laurencia pyramidalis and Laurenciella marilzae (Rhodophyta). European Journal of Phycology 49: 115-127.
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P. et al. (2013) Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAc, p.126.
Templado J, Ballesteros E, Galparsoro I, Borja A, Serrano A, Marín L and Brito. (2012). Guía interpretativa inventario español de habitats y especies marinos. Madrid: Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente.

Criterion A Text:
There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs adjacent to areas subject to pressure from development, it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The scale of any such future decline cannot be estimated at the present time. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria A.

Criterion C/D Text:
This habitat occurs in moderately exposed parts of the rocky littoral zone of the Macaronesian islands. Such areas are particularly vulnerable to loss and degradation as a result of coastal development and poor water quality.  This is apparent particularly on the north and south west coast of Gran Canaria Island (e.g. Punta de Galdar and La Cometa, respectively). Although there is insufficient information to determine historical trends it is considered likely that the habitat may suffer a fairly substantial decline in quality in the future. Expert opinion is that this could range from a slight decline affecting up to 80% of the extent, an intermediate decline affecting up to 50% of the extent or a severe decline affecting 30% of the extent. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable under criteria C/D2.

Synthesis:
This habitat occurs in moderately exposed parts of the rocky littoral zone of the Macaronesian islands. Such areas are particularly vulnerable to loss and degradation as a result of coastal development and poor water quality because they have been the focus for settlement, ports and other coastal services.  Although there is insufficient information to determine historical trends it is considered likely that the habitat may suffer a fairly substantial decline in quality in the future. Expert opinion is that it should be assessed as Vulnerable for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Assessors:
F. Otero-Ferrer, R. Haroun Tabraue, N. Sanders and S. Gubbay.

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group. S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F. Otero-Ferrer, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun Tabraue, N. Sanders.


Habitat Type Name:
A3.23 Macaronesian communities of infralittoral algae moderately exposed to wave action

Habitat Description:
This habitat is characterised by the presence of many photophilic algae covering areas of bedrock and boulders. It occurs in the infralittoral zone in areas that are moderately exposed to wave action and currents. 
In the case of the Azores  - northern archipelago – four associations are recognized: one of the brown algae Colpomenia sinuosa, another one of the red genus Peyssonnelia,  with P. rubra as most common species. The two other biotopes are mainly associated to brown macroalgae, such as Zonaria tournefortii – Dictyota spp. and Turf (calcareous and non calcareous) with Dictyota spp. and Stypocaulon scoparium / Halopteros filicina.
In the southern archipelagos: Madeira, Selvagem and Canary Islands the diversity of biotopes is much greater as is the variety of associated macroalgae. Where the articulated calcareous algae Ellisondia (Corallina) elongate is the characteristic species, there are also many associated epiphytes and small marine invertebrates. The brown foliose macroalgal biotope is characterised mainly by  Lobophora variegata, with other dictyotales such as Zonaria tournefortii, Dictyota spp., Stypopopdium zonale as major elements.There is also an associated biotope composed by the green algae Pseudotetraspora marina), which has been spreading along areas of moderately exposed infralittoral rocks in the Canary Islands. The biotope characterised by Cymopolia barbata covers large shallow infralittoral rocks in locations with strong sunlight. In the eastern canarian archipelago, another conspicuous biotope is that of Padina pavonica, which is sometimes associated with Cladostephus spongiosus, Hypnea and Spyridia.
On horizontal rocky surfaces the red algae Lophocladia trichoclados may form nearly monospecific stands. Seasonal red algal of the genera Galaxaura, Dudresnaya, Liagora and Helminthocladia, are key elements of another conspicuous biotope, whereas the turf forming articulated calcareous algae Haliptilon, Jania and Amphiroa are widespread biotope in the Selvagem and Canary Islands.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time. 
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:     
Zonaira tournefortii can form dense canopies with Stypopodium zonale, Dictyota (Canistrocarpus) spp. and to a lesser extent Padina pavonica also frequent. The green alga Dasycladus vermicularis may form mats on horizontal surfaces. Vagile associated form is abundant and diverse including molluscs, crustaceans echinoderms and numerous fish.
In Madeira and in many canarian locations, the algal species typically observed are Zonaria tournefortii, Stypopodium zonale, Dictyota bartayresiana, Padina pavonica Dasycladus vermicularis Asparagopsis armata and Cottoniella filamentosa. Associated molluscs may include Haliotis tuberculata, Charonia lampas lampas, Hexaplex trunculus, Astraea rugosa, Erosaria spurca and Octopus vulgaris. Crustaceans such as Stenorhynchus lanceolatus Maya squinado,Percnon gibbese, and echinoderms such as Diadema africanum, Sphaerechinus graularis, and Marthasteria glacialis. Abundant fish may include Synodus synodus, Muraena augusti, Serranus atricauda, Diplodus vulgaris, D. sargus cadenati, D. cervinus cervinus, Oblada melanura, Pomadais incises, Chromis limbatus, Abudefduf luridus, Thalassoma pavo, Centrolabrus trutta, Sparisoma cretense, Scorpaena maderensis, Canthigaster rostrate and Sphoeroides marmoratus. 
In the Canary Islands, and within the Pseudotetraspora marina biotope is frequent to observe sponges of the genus Batzella and/ or Cinachyrella, and in the biotope dominated by L. trichoclado, another filamentous red alga Cottoniella filamentosa is common.

Classification:
EUNIS (2004):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic and Mediterranean moderate energy littoral rock’ (A3.2) with modifications to include Macaronesia.
 
Annex 1:  
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow photic rock or biogenic reef
 
IUCN:
9.2 Subtidal rock and rocky reefs

Trends in Quantity:
There is insufficient information on past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in shallow waters which are subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient information about this habitat to determine historical trends in quality. As it occurs in shallow waters which are subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
100% is hosted by EU 28 in the Macaronesian region of the North East Atlantic.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it is present in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threat to this habitat is related to the high intensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades. Harbour construction and tourism resorts have exerted significant pressures on coastal habitats and can result in increased sedimentation and changes in the hydrogological regime, with detrimental effects on adjacent sublittoral habitats such as this. Fishing and poaching activities have become important indirect causes of habitat degradation in the infralittoral zone. Poorly managed waste disposal and sewage discharge can be an additional pressure but this is less likely given the exposed conditions where this habitat occurs.
The increase of international maritime traffic in the harbours of the main cities of the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance work, maypotentially lead to the introduction of marine exotic species. The ecological effects of such species in Macaronesian habitats have not been evaluated.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is included within some Marine Protected Areas where there are associated management measures, regulations and codes of conduct but not necessarily targeting this specific habitat. Regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as control on activities that may potentially lead to the introduction of invasive species are other measures that could benefit this habitat.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
There is insufficient information to determine whether this habitat retains the capacity to recover when severely damaged.

Summary:
This habitat occurs in the infralittoral zone in areas that are moderately exposed to wave action and currents. It is characterised by the presence of many photophilic algae covering areas of bedrock and boulders. In the case of the Azores there are associated biotopes characterised by brown algae some of which form a turf on the rock surfaces. In the southern archipelagos of Madeira, Selvagem and Canary Islands, the diversity of biotopes is much greater as is the variety of macroalgae.There are also many associated epiphytes and small marine invertebrates amongst the algal cover.  
The main threat to this habitat is related to the high intensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades. This has exerted significant pressures on coastal habitats and can have a detrimental effect on adjacent sublittoral habitats such as this. Fishing and poaching activities are other important indirect causes of habitat degradation in the infralittoral zone. The increase of international maritime traffic in the harbours of the main cities of the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance work, are a potential entrance vector for marine exotic species although any ecological effects on Macaronesia habitats have not been yet evaluated.
Beneficial measures include the regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as controls on the introduction of invasive species. Marine Protected Areas which include this habitat can act as a focus for the introduction of such measures.

References:
Araujo, R., Freitas, M. and Monteiro. 2008. Eco-Parque Marinho do Funchal. Câmara Municipal do Funchal. Madeira: Portugal, 8
European Environment Agency, 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 22/08/2014).
Haroun R, Gil-Rodríguez MC, Wildpret de la Torre W, Prud’homme van Reine W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. Las Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.
Tempera, F., E. Atchoi, P. Amorim, J. Gomes-Pereira and J. Gonçalves. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Templado J, Ballesteros E, Galparsoro I, Borja A, Serrano A, Marín L and Brito. 2012. Guía interpretativa inventario español de habitats y especies marinos. Madrid: Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente.
Wallenstein F, Neto A, Álvaro N, Titley I and Azevedo JM. 2008. Coastal biotope definition manual for oceanic islands. Ponta Delgada: Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do Mar.

Criterion A Text:
This habitat is only present in the EU 28 in the North East Atlantic region. There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in shallow waters, in areas subject to pressure from development, it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The scale of any such future decline cannot be estimated at the present time. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under Criteria A.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criterion B1 (b,c) B2 (b,c) and B3 and Data Deficient for all other criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
This habitat occurs in the infralittoral zone of the Macaronesian islands which are subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification. There is insufficient information to determine historical or future trends in quality although it is considered likely to decline in quality in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under Criteria C/D.

Synthesis:
There is insufficient information to determine historical, current or future trends in quantity or quality of this habitat although it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.
This habitat has a large EOO and AOO, and therefore qualifies as Least Concern under criterion B. However the habitat is assessed as Data Deficient both at the EU 28 and EU 28+ levels because of the lack of information on its area and any trends in quantity and quality.

Assessors:
N. Crawley, S. Gubbay, R. Haroun Tabraue, F.Otero-Ferrer.

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group: S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F.Otero-Ferrer J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun Tabraue, N. Sanders.


Habitat Type Name:
A2.32 Polychaete/oligochaete-dominated upper estuarine Pontic littoral mud

Habitat Description:
Upper estuarine sandy mud and mud shores, in areas with significant freshwater influence. Littoral mud typically forms mudflats, though dry compacted mud can form steep and even vertical structures, particularly at the top of the shore adjacent to saltmarshes. Little oxygen penetrates these cohesive sediments, and an anoxic layer is often present within millimetres of the sediment surface.
There are three oligochaete dominated upper estuarine mud biotopes variously dominated by polychaetes, oligochaetes and chironomids. The Pontic ‘Camca’ biotope which is associated with this habitat is unique to Danube River mouths. 
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species and those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure  and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
The upper estuarine mud communities support few infaunal species and are principally characterised by a restricted range of polychaetes and oligochaetes. Chironomids are present in the upper estuary where fresh water conditions are prevalent.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of 'Pontic littoral mud' (A2.3).
 
Annex 1:
1130 Estuaries
1140 Mudflats & sandflats not covered at low tide
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral sediment
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
 
IUCN:
9.10 Estuaries
12.4 Mud Shoreline and Intertidal Mud Flats

Map Description:
This habitat occurs in the Black Sea but there is insufficient data to produce a map of its distribution or calculate EOO and AOO.

Trends in Quantity:
There is insufficient data to accurately assess changes in quantity of the habitat.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient data to accurately assess changes in quality of the habitat.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
It is unknown how much of this habitat is hosted by the EU 28 in the Black Sea.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is known to occur in the Black Sea but there is insufficient data to accurately calculate EOO and AOO. There is insufficient data to accurately assess whether the habitat has undergone a significant  decline in the last 50 years.&

Pressures and Threats:
Eutrophication as a result of nutrient enrichment (N, P and organic matter) is the most significant historic pressure on the habitat. Hypoxic and anoxic events resulted in mass mortality of faunal species. Since the 1990s this pressure has reduced due to tighter controls on pollution in the catchment of the Danube and other rivers which enter the north-west Black Sea. Whilst this pressure is now reduced it is still a continuing threat in the current and future periods. This is especially true for non EU countries surrounding the Black Sea which are not bound by the agreements such as the Water Framework Directive (WFD).
Coastal developments including the construction of marinas and slipways, sediment extraction, the widening and dredging of channels, creation of artificial beaches, road construction and sea defences. These activities may alter the hydrological regime which will in turn affect the character and viability of the habitat.
Chemical pollution. This is a threat of current and future importance which at its most severe can result in species can lead to mortality. High mortality rates can lead to a reduction in extent. Lower mortality rates will result in a reduction in habitat quality. Chemical pollution may also affect the size and growth rate of some of the associated fauna.

Conservation and Management:
Conservation and management measures which would benefit this habitat include measures to maintain physical and biological integrity, including pollution control and regulation, water quality management, coastal development controls, contingency plans to be followed in the event of a major pollution incident, survey and monitoring programmes, raised public awareness of ecological value and vulnerability, enhanced legal protection for occurrences of the habitat and key species (e.g. additions to the EU Habitats Directive, the establishment of a unified list of Black Sea species and habitats requiring conservation measures) and the designation of MPAs.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
There is insufficient data and knowledge on this habitat to state whether it has a small natural range by reason of an intrinsically restricted area.

Summary:
The habitat is present in the Black Sea estuaries where mud is present. It is not present in the Sea of Marmara. Eutrophication is the main historic pressure on this habitat. Additional pressures include: coastal development and chemical pollution. Conservation and management measures relevant to this habitat include: measures to maintain physical and biological integrity, improvement of water quality controls, coastal development controls, survey and monitoring programmes, increased public awareness and designation of MPAs.

References:
Bacescu, M. C., Muller G. I., Gomoiu, M-T. 1971. . Cercetari de ecologie bentica in Marea Neagra (analiza cantitativa, calitativa si comparata a faunei bentice pontice). Ecologie Marina vol. IV. Editura Academiei R.S.R., Bucuresti, 357 pp.
Kiseleva, M. I. 1981. Benthos of Black Sea mobile substrates. Naukova dumka, Kiev, pp 165.
Konsulov, A. 1998. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Bulgaria. Volume 5 of Black Sea environmental series. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.
Marinov, T. 1990. The zoobenthos from the Bulgarian Sector of the Black Sea. Publishing house of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, pp 195 (in Bulgarian).
Micu, D., Zaharia, T., Todorova, V., NiÅ£Äƒ, V. 2007. Romanian Marine Habitats of European Interest. Punct Ochit Publishers, ConstanÅ£a, Romania.
Micu, D. 2008. Open Sea and Tidal Areas. In: Gafta D. and Mountford J.O. (eds.) Natura 2000 Habitat Interpretation Manual for Romania. EU publication no. EuropeAid/121260/D/SV/RO, 101pp. ISBN 978-973- 751-697-8.
Micu, D., Zaharia, T., Todorova, V. 2008. Natura 2000 habitat types from the Romanian Black Sea. In: Zaharia T, Micu D, Todorova V, Maximov V, NiÅ£Äƒ V. The development of an indicative ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas in Romania. Romart Design Publishing, Constanta, Romania.
Moncheva. S., Todorova, V., (eds). 2013. Initial assessment of the marine environment. Article 8,  MSFD 2008/56/EC and NOOSMV (2010). 500p
Petranu, A. 1997. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Romania. Volume 4 of the Black Sea Environmental Series. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.
Zaitsev, Y. P., Alexandrov, B. G. 1998. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Ukraine. Volume 7 of the Black Sea Environmental Series. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.

Criterion A Text:
There is insufficient data on changes in quantity. This habitat has been assessed as Data Deficient under criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat occurs in the Black Sea but there is insufficient data to calculate EOO and AOO.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available t0 estimate the probability of collapse of this habitat type.

Contributors:
S. Beal, G. Komakhidze, V. Kopiy D. Micu, V. Mihneva, N. Milchakova, B. Yokes


Habitat Type Name:
A1.1xx- Turf algae on Pontic moderately exposed lower mediolittoral rock.

Habitat Description:
Moderately exposed bedrock and boulders in the lower mediolittoral zone with a cover of algal turf. High and constant humidity, strong wave action and strong light are the dominant environmental factors for this habitat. In the Black Sea lower mediolittoral rock is a narrow zone located in the lower part of the swash zone and is covered by water most of the time. The habitat is found on rocky coasts in relatively pristine conditions.
Indicators of quality:
There are no known commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may be set in certain situations, e.g. protected features with Natura 2000 sites, where reference values may have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis. Some potential indicators of quality for this specifc habitat are the cover of corallines (erect and crustose; >80%), height of erect corallines (>25 mm), lack of ephemeral green and red algae and cyanobacteria.
Characteristic species:
Encrusting corallines Lithophyllum incrustans, articulated corallines Corallina officinalis and ephemeral macrophytes like Ulva compressa, Cladophora sp. and Ceramiales make up the algal cover. Characteristic fauna includes the chiton Lepidochitona caprearum, the limpet Patella caerulea, barnacles Balanus improvisus, anemones Diadumene lineata, mussels Mytilaster lineatus and Mytilus galloprovincialis, bryozoans, amphipod (Hyale pontica, Ampithoe ramondi) and isopod (Idotea balthica, Sphaeroma pulchellum) crustaceans, and the crabs Pachygrapsus marmoratus and Eriphia verrucosa. If the water is clean Corallina and Mytilaster may form dense turfs/belts, with sparse cover of other algae (Ceramiales, Porphyra leucosticta, Ulva rigida, Scytosiphon lomentaria). In degraded, enriched areas Mytilus galloprovincialis and Balanus improvisus dominate, with some cover of the algae Cladophora vagabunda, Cladophora laetevirens, Ulva compressa, Ulva intestinalis, and Ulothrix flacca.

Classification:
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap: 
Not mapped
 
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is widespread in the region with a species composition that is confined to the Black Sea. The Mediterranean has a comparable habitat but with a different species composition.

Map Description:
This map has been generated based on expert opinion. The map has been used to calculate AOO and EOO. The map should be treated with caution as it does not necessarily reflect the full distribution of the habitat.

Comment EU28:
Area estimates are available at some localities. These are a small proportion of the total area. It is possible to infer presence based on certain conditions. However, the total area is unknown.

Comment EU28+:
Area estimates are available at some localities. These are a small proportion of the total area. It is possible to infer presence based on certain conditions. However, the total area is unknown.

Trends in Quantity:
As this habitat was first described 2006/2007, no quantitative or qualitative data are available from the historic period (pre-1965). However, expert opinion suggests that the habitat was widespread across natural rocky coasts, especially around the rocky cliffs of Bulgaria, Crimea, Turkey and southern Romania.
For the recent period (1965 to present) there are no quantitative or qualitative data to indicate changes in quantity. However, expert opinion is that the extent is likely to have declined significantly due to eutrophication. Between the mid-1970s and the early 1990s, widespread and severe eutrophication occurred in the Black Sea, especially on the north-west shelf, caused by agricultural run-off to rivers entering the sea, and coastal industrial development.
Habitat destruction (due to coastal development) is also likely to have caused a decline in extent. For instance, there has been widespread destruction of natural rocky substrates in the Bosporus Strait (Turkey) and Romania.
In the future the habitat is expected to recolonise natural rocky substrates where they remain since eutrophication pressure has reduced since the 1990s. Studies in Crimea have shown that this habitat can colonise artificial hard substrates, providing pressures from eutrophication and other factors remain low.

Trends in Quality:
No quantitative or qualitative data exist for the historic (pre-1965) period. However, expert opinion is that the quality is likely to have been high and stable.
No quantitative or qualitative data exist for the present (1965 to present day) period. However, expert opinion is that the quality is likely to have declined based on knowledge of the habitats sensitivity towards eutrophication and development pressures. As these pressures increased throughout the 1980s and 1990s the rate of decline is also likely to have increased.
In future, the quality of the habitat is likely to improve as long as the current environmental conditions remain stable. 
Overall the quality of this habitat is considered stable.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Around 13% of this habitat is estimated to be hosted by the EU 28 in the Black Sea.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a small range following regression in the EU countries only. In the EU 28+ the EOO exceeds 50,000 km². The habitat is likely to have undergone an important decline in the last 50 years, especially true in the western Black Sea (see

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat can be found on exposed mediolittoral rocks. These are present throughout the Black Sea.

Pressures and Threats:
Eutrophication as a result of nutrient enrichment (N, P and organic matter) was the most significant historic pressure on the habitat. Between the mid-1970s and the mid 1980s, widespread and severe eutrophication occurred in the Black Sea, especially on the north-west shelf, caused by agricultural run-off to rivers entering the sea, and coastal industrial development. Whilst this pressure is now reduced, it remains a threat in the current and future periods, especially along coastal parts of non-EU countries which are not bound by legislation such as the Water Framework Directive (WFD) or Marine Strategy Framework Directive.
Coastal development, which can lead to habitat destruction and siltation, is a threat of current and future importance in all parts of the Black Sea. In Romania, Bulgaria, Crimea and the Caucasus intensive hotel development and the creation of artificial beaches are a threat to the underlying substrate. In Turkey, proposed road developments also threaten the substrate.
Collecting Patella caerulea for food or bait is a threat to the species composition of the habitat. This species plays a role in maintaining the habitats’ structure and functionality by grazing the softer algal cover.

Conservation and Management:
The habitat is protected within MPAs and Natura2000 sites in Romania and Bulgaria. In Romania Natura2000 sites have been designated specifically to protect this habitat.
In the future more protected areas should be designated to protect the habitat. This can be supported by restrictions on coastal developments and efforts to improve water quality (especially in non-EU states).

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat can recover naturally providing suitable substrate is present. However, there is no knowledge of the time required for recovery to take place.

Summary:
The habitat is present throughout the Black Sea on areas of moderately exposed bedrock and boulders in the lower mediolittoral zone. It is typically a narrow zone characterised by a cover of algal turf, particularly erect and crustose coralline algae. It is also present in the Sea of Marmara. The habitat was first described in 2006/2007. From the 1970s, the most significant pressure was eutrophication. After peaking in the 1980s, eutrophication has since reduced due to tighter controls on pollution in the catchment of the Danube and other rivers which enter the north-west Black Sea as well as industrial decline after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Coastal development leading to habitat destruction and siltation is also a threat. This habitat is currently protected within marine protected areas (MPAs) and Natura 2000 sites in Romania and Bulgaria. This can be supported by restrictions on coastal developments and efforts to improve water quality (especially in non-EU states).

References:
Afanasiev, D.F. and Korpakova, I.G. 2008. Macrophytobenthos Russian Azov-Black Sea. Rostov-on-Don: FGUP AzNIIRH.
Anon. 2006. The Northwestern part of the Black Sea: Biology and Ecology. Kiev: Naukova Dumka. 701pp.
Bacescu, M.C., Muller, G.I. and Gomoiu, M.-T. 1971. Cercetari de ecologie bentala in Marea Neagra (analiza cantitativa, calitativa si comparata a faunei bentice pontice). Ecologie Marina. Vol. IV. Editura Academiei R.S.R., Bucuresti, 357 pp.
Bacescu, M. 1977. Les biocenoses benthiques de la Mer Noire. Biologie des eaux saumatres de la Mer Noire, Premiere partie: 128-134.
Culha, M. and Bat, L. 2010. Visible decline of limpet Patella caerulea Linnaeus, 1758, a biomonitor species, at the sinop peninsula and vicinity (the southern Black sea, Turkey). Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology 11(3): 1024-1029.
Çulha, M., Bat, L., Türk Çulha, S. and Çelik, M.Y. 2010. Benthic mollusk composition of some facies in the upper-infralittoral zone of the southern Black Sea, Turkey. Turkish Journal of Zoology 34: 523-532.
Dimitrova-Konaklieva, S. 2000. Flora of the Marine Algae of Bulgaria (Rhodophyta, Phaeophyta, Chlorophyta). Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Gönlügür Demirci, G. 2005. Sinop YarÄ±madasÄ±nÄ±n (Orta Karadeniz) Mollusca FaunasÄ±. Science and Engineering Journal of FÄ±rat University 17(3): 565-572.
Gromov, V.V. 1979. Seasonal dynamics of macrophytobenthos Novorossiysk Bay near Cape Sherskhari. Biologiya Morya 51: 3-5.
Kalugina-Gutnik, A.A. 1970. The composition and distribution of benthic vegetation in the south-eastern part of the Black Sea. Ecological and morphological studies of benthic organisms. Kiev: Naukova Dumka. pp185-202.
Kalugina-Gutnik, A.A. 1975. Phytobenthos of Black Sea. Kiev: Naukova Dumka. 275 pp.
Konsulov, A. 1998. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Bulgaria. Vol. 5 of Black Sea Environmental Series. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.
Lisovskaya, O.A. and Stepanyan, O.V. 2009. A variety of coastal macroalgae Taman Peninsula (Russia) in summer. Algology 19(4): 341-348.
Lisovskaya, O.A. 2011. Macrophytobenthos upper divisions of the coastal zone of the Russian Black Sea coast. Dissertation for the degree of biological sciences.
Marinov, T. 1990. The Zoobenthos from the Bulgarian Sector of the Black Sea. Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Micu, D., Zaharia, T., Todorova, V. and NiÅ£Äƒ, V. 2007. Romanian Marine Habitats of European Interest. Punct Ochit Publishers, ConstanÅ£a, Romania.
Micu, D. 2008. Open Sea and Tidal Areas. Natura 2000 Habitat Interpretation Manual for Romania. Gafta, D. and Mountford, J.O. (Eds.). EU publication no. EuropeAid/121260/D/SV/RO, 101pp. ISBN 978-973-751-697-8.
Micu, D., Zaharia, T. and Todorova, V. 2008. Natura 2000 habitat types from the Romanian Black Sea. The development of an indicative ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas in Romania. Zaharia, T., Micu, D., Todorova, V., Maximov, V. and NiÅ£Äƒ, V. (Eds.). Romart Design Publishing, Constanta, Romania.
Moncheva, S. and Todorova, V. (Eds.). Initial assessment of the marine environment. Article 8, MSFD 2008/56/EC and NOOSMV (2010). 500p.
Morozova-Vodyanitskaya, N.V. 1936. Experience quantifying bottom vegetation in the Black Sea. Proceedings of the Sevastopol Biological Station 5: 45-217.
Morozova-Vodyanitskaya, N.V. 1959. Bottom vegetation of the Black Sea. Proceedings of the Sevastopol Biological Station 11: 3–28.
Petranu, A. 1997. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Romania. Black Sea Environmental Series, Vol. 4. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.
Salomidi, M., Katsanevakis, S., Damalas, D., Mifsud, R., Todorova, V., Pipitone, C., Fernandez, T.V., Mirto, S., Galparsoro, I., Pascual, M., Borja, Á., Rabaut, M. and Braeckman, U. 2010. Monitoring and Evaluation of Spatially Managed Areas. Catalogue of European seabed biotopes. Deliverable 1.2. Available at: http://www.mesma.org/default.asp?ZNT=S0T1O-1P24. (Accessed: 19/08/2015).
Teyubova, V.F. and Efimova, O.V. 2003. Macrophytobenthos urezovoy area of Novorossiysk Bay (Black Sea) in terms of human impact. Ekologiya Morya 64: 67-71.
Teyubova, V.F. 2005. Features interannual dynamics species composition and structure macrophytobenthos in the Bay of Novorossiysk (Black sea). Ekologiya Morya 69: 53–57.
Teyubova, V.F. 2012. The diversity and ecological features macrophytobenthos the Russian sector of the Black Sea. Dissertation for the degree of biological sciences.
Tkachenko, F.P. and Kovtun O.O. 2014. Contemporary condition of seaweeds flora of Zmeiny island Ñoastal zone (Black Sea). Chornomors’k. bot. z. 10(1): 37-47.
Todorova, V. 2011. Black mussels and/or barnacle communities on mediolittoral rocks. Red Data Book of Republic of Bulgaria. Vol. III. Natural habitats. Bas and Moew (Eds.). Available at: http://e-ecodb.bas.bg/rdb/en/vol3/01a1.html. (Accessed: 20/08/2015). Vershinin, A. 2007. Life in the Black Sea. Maccentr, Moscow, Russia.
Zaika, V.E., Boltachev, A.R., Zuev, G.V., Kovalev, A.V., Milchakova, N.A. and Sergeev, N.G. 2004. Floristic and faunistic changes in the Crimean Black Sea shelf after 1995–1998. Marine Ecological Journal 3(2): 37- 44.
Zaitsev, Y.P. and Alexandrov, B.G. 1998. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Ukraine. Vol. 7 of the Black Sea Environmental Series. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.
Zinova, E.S. 1935. Algae in the Black Sea resort of Novorossiysk Bay and their use. Proceedings of the Sevastopol Biological Station 4: 5-136.

Criterion A Text:
Evidence of spatial decline exists but there is insufficient data on the extent of this habitat before declines began to make conclusions. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria A for both the EU 28 and the EU28+.

Criterion B Text:
The AOO and EOO are intrinsically small for the EU states. Declines in spatial extent, abiotic and biotic quality have halted. There is the potential for declines to continue in Bulgaria within the next 20 years due to coastal development. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Endangered under criteria B1b, Vulnerable under criteria B2b for the EU 28 and Least Concern for all other criteria for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
There is insufficient data to assess reductions in abiotic and/or biotic quality.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a limited geographical range within the Black Sea EU 28 countries, and has been subject to declines in quantity and this trend is considered likely to continue within the next 20 years.
This habitat has therefore been assessed as Endangered for the EU 28.  Because of the wide geographical distribution in the Black Sea it has been assessed as Least Concern for the EU 28+.
There is insufficient data to asses this habitat based on other criteria.

Assessors:
S. Beal, D. Micu, N. Milchakova, B. Yokes

Contributors:
D. Micu, S. Beal,  E.B. Chernysheva, D. Korolesova, V. Mihneva, N. A. Milchakova, B. Yokes


Habitat Type Name:
G1.2a Alnus woodland on riparian and upland soils

Habitat Description:
These are riparian and land-upheaval woodlands dominated by Alnus glutinosa and/or A. incana, and sometimes Fraxinus excelsior, typically without many softwood willows in the canopy, such woodland being assessed separately as G1.1 Temp and boreal softwood riparian woodland).  This habitat also differs from riparian woodlands of the middle and lower reaches of major European rivers, which is assessed separately as G1.2b Temperate and boreal hardwood riparian forest. The non-riverine subtype of this present habitat (corresponding to the original G1.B Non-riverine alder woodland) is typical of the Baltic coast, a sea with a low level of salinity.
The stands show varying degrees of soil moisture according to the frequency of flooding in mature river valleys, depth of water table, or proximity to the coast. Moister forms can also have some Salix fragilis, Betula pubescens and Prunus padus in the canopy with S. phylicifolia beneath;  in more mesic situations, Sorbus aucuparia can appear among the trees with Juniperus communis beneath.  Other shrubs include Crataegus monogyna, Ribes alpinum, R. spicatum, Rubus caesius, R. idaeus, S. triandra and Sambucus nigra.  The field layer can be quite species-rich, especially in moister situations, when more nutrient-demanding herbs such as Urtica dioica and Filipendula ulmaria may be abundant. Other herbs then include Valeriana sambucifolia, Angelica sylvestris, Deschampsia cespitosa, Calamagrostis canescens and C. purpurea.  More mesic stands have Milium effusum, Silene dioica, Rubus saxatilis and Poa nemoralis. In the driest situations, Agrostis capillaris and Moehringia trinervia occur and even some forest dwarf shrubs but at low frequency and cover.  In the northernmost Bothnian Bay, on slightly more calcareous substrate, Geranium sylvaticum, Oxalis acetosella, Filipendula ulmaria, Geum rivale and Anthriscus sylvestris are distinctive.
Indicators of quality:
Undisturbed natural hydrology
Dominance of mature trees with shrubs forming a subordinate layer
Few if any signs of exploitation for timber, fallen trees remaining in situ with ample deposition of natural organic debris from flooding in riparian sites.
No signs of eutrophication or pollution by anthropogenically enriched flood or ground waters, for example excessive spread of nutrient-demanding weeds
Absence of non-native tree species and absence of invasive aliens such as Reynoutria japonica or Impatiens glandulifera

Characteristic species:
Tree layer: Alnus glutinosa, A. incana, Betula pubescens, Prunus padus, Salix fragilis, Sorbus aucuparia.
Shrub layer: Crataegus monogyna, Juniperus communis, Ribes alpinum, R. spicatum, Rubus caesius, R. idaeus, Salix phylicifolia, S. triandra, Sambucus nigra.
Field layer: Aegopodium podagraria, Agrostis capillaris, Angelica sylvestris, Anthriscus sylvestris, Athyrium filix-femina, C. purpurea, Calamagrostis canescens, Deschampsia cespitosa, Filipendula ulmaria, Galium aparine, Glechoma hederaea, Geum urbanum,Geranium sylvaticum, Geum rivale, Milium effusum, Moehringia trinervia, Oxalis acetosella, Petasites hybridus, Poa nemoralis, P. trivialis, Rubus saxatilis, Silene dioica, Solanum dulcamara, Urtica diocia, Valeriana sambucifolia.
Mosses: Brachythecium rutabulum, Eurhynchium praelongum, Plagiomnium undulatum.

Classification:
EUNIS: 
G1.1 Riparian and gallery woodland, with dominant [Alnus], [Betula], [Populus] or [Salix].
EuroVegChecklist alliances:
Alnion incanae PawÅ‚owski et al. 1928
Alno incanae-Salicion pentandrae Kielland-Lund 1981
Annex 1:
91E0 Alluvial forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior (Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae)
9030 Natural forests of primary succession stages of landupheaval coast
Emerald:
G1.12 Boreo-alpine riparian galleries
G1.21 Riverine Fraxinus - Alnus woodland, wet at high but not at low water
G1.B3 Boreal and boreonemoral Alnus woods
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.1 Boreal Forest
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT
12.1 Riparian forest
VME:
U3.1  Hardwood alluvial forests in combination with willow and poplar alluvial forests

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat has a widespread range on river banks and land upheaval sites through temperate Europe.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete, with posisble data gap in Norway and potential distribution provided for the Balkan. Data sources: EVA, Art17, BOHN.

Comment EU28:
6076 is reported but data is missing for several countries. 6500 seems to be a good estimate of the total area for EU 28  according to art 17 and estimates

Comment EU28+:
6155 is reported but data is missing for several countries. 7000 seems to be a good estimate of the total area of EU 28+ according to art 17 and estimates

Trends in Quantity:
The recent past-present trend is a 10 to 50% decrease in most countries providing data for this criterion (Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland), almost stable (-0,5% decrease) in Slovakia, stable in Lithuania, increasing in Ireland and Czech Republic. The long-term historical trend in quantity cannot be assessed, contrary to temperate and boreal hardwood riparian woodland, but most countries report an historical decrease (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Hungary, Switzerland, Germany). The current trend is still a decrease in a bit less than 2/3rd of the countries, stable in 1/3rd, increasing in only 1 country. The expected future trend is a bit better than the current one, with an increase expected in Belgium, Czech Republic, Estonia and Ireland and a stable trend in Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland. The experts mostly expect the effects of conservation mesures, with the protection of riparian woodlands. Still, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, France, Hungary, Italy, Latvia and Slovakia expect a decrease in the area.

Trends in Quality:
It is not possible to assess a long-term historical trend in sufficient countries. For the last 50 years, most countries report a decrease in quality and the trend is calculated on 84 to 85 % of the extent. Most countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, the UK) have reported a decline in quality for the last 50 years, even if the situation is not as bad as G1.2b riparian woodlands of large rivers. The reason is that most of the time this forest type forms only small linear stands along small rivers and streams, and thus is less affected by changes in land use. The current quality is not good, because of a lack of deadwood and large trees, pollution, grazing under trees, and degradation in hydological conditions. The trend is now better : a currend stable trend is now reported in 11 out of 28 countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Norway, Slovakia), even an improvement in Estonia where the habitat covers 700 km² (10% of EU28+ total area). Thought, a decrease trend is still reported in half of the countries (14 out of 28) representing half of the area (51%) : Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably about 50 % of the area lies in EU28.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is widely distributed through temperate Europe, occupying a lot of medium to small rivers banks and can form long linear patches.

Pressures and Threats:
The most frequently reported problem in almost every country is a change in hydrological conditions, especially a lack of flooding with river regulation, also in some countries drying out and water abstraction for agriculture irrigation. Forestry clearance especially for agriculture, also for infrastructures as roads and poplar plantation are also reported in a lot of countries. The third most important pressure is invasive non-native species (Impatiens glandulifera). Pollution (eutrophisation of rivers, pesticides) is also reported, even if less frequently, and tree desease affects the 2 main tree species in this habitat in alder dieback and chalara ash disease. Grazing under the trees or from nearby grasslands is sometimes reported.

Conservation and Management:
Conservation measures include the conservation or restoration of a good functioning of the river with floodings and natural banks, and a protection against clearing and planting of alien species. Clearings and cuttings have not only been done for logging or in favor of other land-use, but also to avoid large woody debris to cause log-jam on the river. Such woody debris are vital for the whole river ecosystem and provide habitat for a lot of species, from the river banks (beaver, birds) and bed (fish nursery, insects, molluscs). Dead or dying trees should be kept unless a log-jam threatens infrastructures just downstream in urbanized areas. Many riparian alnus woodlands along small rivers form only ribbons along agricultural lands, and their conservation must involve farmers, as with the conservation of hedges. It is also important to keep cattle from grazing the banks and going down in the river, as they damage the soil and vegetation. When riparian woods are located along rivers flowing in a forest, their conservation implies forestry steawardship (no logging on the river banks, no crossing by machines).

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
9030: BOR U1
91E0: ATL U2, ALP U2, BLS U1, BOR U2, CON U2, MED U1, PAN U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The best thing to restore riparian hardwoods for example from old poplar plantations and fight alien species is to avoid any further strong intervention in the vegetation, because soil perturbation and light on the ground would favour alien species whereas shade will control them.

Summary:
This habitat of Alnus woodland, usually lacking Salix spp., occurs mostly as narrow strips on the frequently inundated banks of streams and small to medium rivers throughout temperate Europe; less often, but more extensively, on land-upheaval sites on the Baltic coast. The assicuated flora varies with flood frequency and soil moisture according or proximity to the coast. Threats include a degradation of hydrological conditions, clearance for sylviculture and agriculture and, more recently, pollution and invasion of alien species. Conservation needs maintenance of the glood regime with deposition of alluvium adn debris, exclusion of non-native species and, along rivers, ensuring freedom from pollution.

References:
Carbiener R., 1970. Un exemple de type forestier exceptionnel pour l'Europe occidentale : la forêt du lit majeur du Rhin au niveau du fossé rhénan (Fraxino-Ulmetum Oberd 53) ; Intérêt écologique et biogéographique ; Comparaison à d'autres forêts thermohygrophiles ; Vegetatio, Acta Geobotanica, 18.3.
10 Vol. 20.
Dynesius M. & Nilsson C. Fragmentation and Flow Regulation of River Systems in the Northern Third of the World. Umeå University, Umeå, Västerbotten, Sweden. Science 11/1994; 266(5186):753-762.
Le Lay Y.-F. & Piégay H. 2007. - Le bois mort dans les paysages fluviaux français : éléments pour une gestion renouvelée, L'Espace géographique 1/2007 (Tome 36), p. 51-64. URL : www.cairn.info/revue-espace-geographique-2007-1-page-51.htm.
Moss T. & Monstadt J. - Restoring Floodplains in Europe:Policy Contexts and Project Experiences. IWA publisher, 320 p.
Schwabe, A. (1985): Monographie Alnus incana-reicher Waldgesellschaften in Europa –  Variabilität und Ähnlichkeiten einer azonal verbreiteten Gesellschaftsgruppe. –  Phytocoenologia 13, 197-302.
Schnitzler-Lenoble A. 2007. Forêts alluviales d'Europe. Tec et Doc, Lavoisier. 387 P.
Vartiainen, T. (1980). Succession of island vegetation in the land uplift area of the northernmost Gulf of Bothnia, Finland. Acta Botanica Fennica, 115, 1-105.

Criterion A Text:
Only a small decrease (-14 %) is reported for criterion A1, in both EU28 and EU28+. This trend has only been calculated on half of the area, due to a lack of trend for France.

Criterion B Text:
The thresholds for AOO and EOO and the number of locations exceed the thresholds for criteria under B.

Criterion C/D Text:
A slight decrease (35% severity) in quality is reported for criterion C/D1 on less than half (45 to 46 %) of the reported area. This trend is calculated on 85% of the total area.

Synthesis:
The past present decline in quantity of around 14% is not strong enough to qualify a Near Threatened category and the reported decline in quality has only been slight (36%) on less than half of the area. Neither trend in quality nor in quantity could qualify the Near Threatened category. The situation certainly benefits from nature conservation programms such as Natura 2000, but the pressure remains strong on this habitat that can be easily degradated by river regulation or destruction of trees along agricultural lands (just like other hedgerows), or forest plantations.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The Baltic coastal subtype would qualify for a Vulnerable category in Finland because more than 80 % of the area is affected by a slight decline in quality since the 50's. It appeared as Near threatend category on the habitat redlist of this countr

Assessors:
B. Renaux, SSymank A., Tonteri T., Attore F., Dimopoulos P., Chytrý M., Valderrabano M.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Rodwell, T. Tonteri & B. Renaux
Territorial data sheets : P.A. Aarrestad, S. Armiraglio, L. Aunina, R-J. Bijlsma, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, J.A. Campos, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, M. Chytrý, R. Delarze, M. Dimitrov, P. Dimopoulos, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, K.J. Kirby, T. Kontula, B. Nygaard, F. O'Neill, D. Paelinckx, V. RašomaviÄius, B. Renaux, I. Sell, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, M. ValachoviÄ, W. Willner
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
A1.34 Macaronesian communities of lower eulittoral rock sheltered from wave action

Habitat Description:
This habitat occurs in the sheltered lower horizon of the mediolittoral rock and develops in response to the combined effects of little wave action, variations in atmospheric pressure,  wind and tide. The dominant aspect is the constant humidity of the substratum. It is found throughout Macaronesia in the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands and includes a proposed newly described biotope  ‘Association with Enteromorpha compressa’ which occurs in the Azores. 
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
One of the associated species, Padina pavonica, is affected by and thrives under acidic conditions and may therefore be useful as a bioindicator of ocean acidification
Characteristic species:
In the case of the southern Macaronesian archipelagos, Padina pavonica, Stypocaulon scoparium, Dasycladus vermicularis  and Colpomenia sinuosa.   Associated fauna include crabs such us Xantho poressa or Dardanus spp (hermit crabs), molluscs such as Patella spp or echinoderms (Arbacia spp.).

Classification:
EUNIS(2004)
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘low energy littoral rock’ (A1.3) with modification to include Macaronesia.
 
Annex 1:
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock & biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
 
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Trends in Quantity:
There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in the littoral zone which is subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification (such as eutrophication processes) it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient information about this habitat to determine historical trends in quality. As it occurs in the littoral zone which is subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification (such as eutrophication processes) it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threat to this habitat is the high intensity of high urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades, particularly on the south west coast of Tenerife island. Harbour construction, tourism resorts, and poorly managed waste disposal and sewage discharge have exerted significant pressures on habitats in the littoral zone. The increase in international maritime traffic in the harbours of the main cities of the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance work may potentially lead to the introduction of marine exotic species.  The ecological effects of such species on Macaronesia habitats have not been evaluated.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is included within some Marine Protected Areas where there are associated management measures, regulations and codes of conduct but not necessarily targeting this specific habitat. Regulation of coastal development and discharges to the marine environment and control of activities that might lead to the introduction of invasive species are other measures that could benefit this habitat.

Summary:
This habitat occurs in the intertidal zone, on sheltered rocky shores of all the Macaronesian islands (the Azores, Canary Islands and Madeira). The associated communities develop in response to the combined effects of little wave action, variations in atmospheric pressure, wind and tide with the dominant aspect being the constant humidity of the substratum. Green and brown algae may become established on the rock surfaces and provide shelter for invetebrate fauna such as hermit crabs, molluscs and echinoderms. 
The main pressures and threats are destruction or modification of the habitat as a result of coastal development. These include the construction of harbours and tourist resorts which can extend across the intertidal zone or affect the wave exposure. Waste disposal and sewage discharges to the marine environment are other activities which can damage or degrade the biotopes associated with this habitat. More recently, oil-platform maintenance works are a potential entrance vector for marine exotic species although any ecological effects on Macaronesia habitats have not been yet evaluated.
Beneficial measures include the regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as controls on the introduction of invasive species. Marine Protected Areas which include this habitat can act as a focus for the introduction of such measures.

References:
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed August 2014).
Gil-Diaz, Haroun, R, Tuya, F. et al. 2014. Effects of ocean acidification of the Brown Alga Padina pavonica; decalcification due to acute and chronic events. PLOS One 9:1-9. Availiable at: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108630. (Accessed: 12/08/2014). 
Haroun, R., Gil-Rodríguez M.C., Wildpret de la Torre, W., Prud’homme van Reine W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. Las Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.                    
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P. et al. 2013. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta:  MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAc, p.126.
Templado, J., Ballesteros, E., Galparsoro, I., et al., (2012). Guía interpretativa inventario español de habitats y especies marinos. Madrid: Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente.

Criterion A Text:
There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in shallow waters, in areas subject to pressure from development, it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The scale of any such future decline cannot be estimated at the present time. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria A.

Criterion B Text:
The area of this habitat has not been quantified however current knowledge, based on expert opinion, is that EOO >50,000 km2  therefore it does not have a restricted geographical distribution. The AOO has been estimated as 47 indicating it is only present in a small number of 10 x 10km grid squares. When considered together with expert opinion that coastal development and other pressures are likely to cause declines in quantity and/or quality within the next 20 years, this habitat has been assessed as Vulnerable under criteria B2 (b).

Criterion C/D Text:
This habitat occurs in sheltered parts of the littoral zone of the Macaronesian islands. Such areas are particulary vulnerable to loss and degradation as a result of coastal development and poor water quality. This is apparent particularly on the south west coast of Tenerife island. Although there is insufficient information to determine historical trends it is considered likely that the habitat may suffer a fairly substantial decline in quality in the future. Expert opinion is that this could range from a slight decline affecting up to 80% of the extent, an intermediate decline affecting up to 50% of the extent or a severe decline affecting 30% of the extent. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable under criteria C/D2.

Synthesis:
Detailed information on the abundance and extent of this habitat is lacking but survey information reveals that it does not have a narrow geographical distribution. Based on existing records it appears to have a small Area of Occupancy. Historical trend data are not available but expert opinion is that there is likely to be a substantial reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality in the future. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable under criteria B2 and C/D2.


Habitat Type Name:
A1.14 Macaronesian communities of lower eulittoral rock very exposed to wave action

Habitat Description:
This intertidal habitat occurs on rocky shores of bedrock and boulders in areas that are very exposed to wave action. Because of this the associated biotopes are characterised by encrusting species such as crustose and calcified red algae (e.g. Lithophyllum tortuosum (ex Tenarea undulosa), Lithophyllum lobatum and Titanoderma polycephalum) as well as species that are able to settle and remain attached in wave exposed conditons such as the stalked barnacle  Pollicipes cornucopiae.
Indicators of Quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis. Indicators which have been developed for the assessment of ecological quality of coastal water bodies for the Water Framework Directive (WFD) that are relevant to this habitat include a consideration of macroalgae species richness, proportions of different taxa of algae present, and the abundance and coverage of the rocky surfaces by typical species. 
Characteristic species:
Lithophyllum tortuosum (ex Tenarea undulosa), Lithophyllum lobatum, Pollicipes cornucopiae, and Titanoderma polycephalum

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
There is insufficient information to determine whether this habitat is an outstanding example of typical characteristics of the Macaronesian region.

Trends in Quantity:
There is insufficient information on past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in the intertidal zone which is subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient information on past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quality. As it occurs in the intertidal zone which is subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it is present in both the Azores and the Canary Islands.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it is present in both the Azores and the Canary Islands.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threats to this habitat is related to shellfish collection (i.e. Pollicipes cornucopiae) and to the high intensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades. Harbour construction, tourism resorts have exerted siginificant pressures on habitats in the littoral zone. Poorly managed waste disposal and sewage discharge can be an additional pressure but this is less likely given the exposed conditions where this habitat occurs. 
The increase in international maritime traffic in the harbours of main cities of the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance works may potentially lead to the introduction of marine exotic species. The ecological effects of such species on Macaronesian habitats have not been evaluated.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is included within some Marine Protected Areas where there are associated management measures, regulations and codes of conduct but not necessarily targetting this specific habitat. Regulation of coastal development and discharges to the marine environment, and control of activities that might leat to the introduction of invasive species are other measures that could benefit this habitat.

Summary:
This habitat is present on rocky shores of the Macaronesian islands that are very exposed to wave action. Because of this the associated biotopes are characterised by encrusting species such as crustose and calcified red algae as well as species that are able to settle and remain attached in wave exposed conditons such as the stalked barnacle Pollicipes cornucopiae. There are records from the Canary Islands (e.g. Gran Canaria and Lanzarote), Madeira and the Azores.
The main pressures and threats are related to shellfish collection and the destruction or modification of the habitat as a result of coastal development. These include the construction of harbours and tourist resorts which can extend across the intertidal zone or affect the wave exposure. Waste disposal and sewage discharges to the marine environment are other activities which can damage or degrade the biotopes associated with this habitat although the exposure conditions means that these are unlikely to be major threats. More recently, oil-platform maintenance works are a potential entrance vector for marine exotic species although any ecological effects on Macaronesia habitats have not been yet evaluated.
Beneficial measures include the regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as controls on the introduction of invasive species. Marine Protected Areas which include this habitat can act as a focus for the introduction of such measures.

References:
Espino, F., Boyra, A., Tuya, F. & Haroun, R.J. 2006. Guía visual de las especies marinas de Canarias. Ediciones Oceanográfica. Telde: Publications de Oceanagrafica, p.482.
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 22/08/2014).
Haroun, R., Gil-Rodríguez M.C., Wildpret de la Torre W., Prud’homme van Reine W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. Las Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P. et al. 2013. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. MeshAtlantic. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAc, p.126.
Wallenstein, F. M., Neto, A.I., Patarra, R.F. et al., 2013. Indices to monitor coastal ecological quality of rocky shores based on seaweed communities: a simplification for wide geographical use. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 13(1):15-25.

Criterion A Text:
This habitat is only present in the EU 28 in the North East Atlantic region. There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in shallow waters, in areas subject to pressure from development, it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The scale of any such future decline cannot be estimated at the present time. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria A.

Criterion B Text:
The area of this habitat has not been quantified however current knowledge, based on expert opinion, is that EOO >50,000 km2 therefore it does not have a restricted geographical distribution. The AOO has been estimated as 49 indicating it is only present in a small number of 10 x 10km grid squares but this is likely to be an underestimate. There is a lack of information on trends. The known distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1 (c), B2 (c) and B3, and Data Deficient under the remaining criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
This habitat occurs in the littoral zone of the Macaronesian islands which are subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as unregulated shellfish collection, habitat destruction or modification. There is insufficient informationto determine historical or future trends in quality although it is considered likely to decline in quality in the future if conservation/management measures are not introduced. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria C/D.

Synthesis:
This habitat is only present in the EU 28 in the North East Atlantic region. There is insufficient information to determine historical, current or future trends in quantity or quality of this habitat although it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The known distribution is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. 
This habitat has large EOO and therefore qualifies as Least Concern under criterion B1 and B3. The AOO suggests this habitat could be Vulnerable under criterion B2 however given the lack of information on trends in quantity and quality, and the fact that its overall distribution is unknown, expert opinion is this habitat should be considered Data Deficient for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Assessors:
Otero-Ferrer, F., Haroun , R., Sanders, N. and Gubbay, S.

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group. Sanders, N., Dankers, N., Forde, J., Fürhaupter, K., Gubbay, S., Haroun, R., Otero-Ferrer, F., Saunders, G., and Tyler-Walters, H.


Habitat Type Name:
A1.13 Macaronesian communities of upper eulittoral rock

Habitat Description:
This intertidal habitat occurs on rocky shores of bedrock and boulders in areas exposed to wave action during high tides as well as to the swell of large storms. It includes facies characterised by discontinuous belts of the red algae Bangia atropurpurea  and  Porphyra spp.. The associated fauna  include littorinids (Littorina striata, Malaraphe neritoides and Nodilittorina punctata), small crustaceans such as hermit crabs (Dardanus  and Pagurus spp.), acorn barnacle (Chthamallus stellatus) and the isopod Ligia itálica. In very exposed areas, the Sally Lightfoot crab (Grapsus adscensionis) or the Runner crab (Pachygrapsus marmoratus) are quite conspicuous.
It has been recorded from both the Azores (San Miguel) and the Canary Islands (Lanzarote, Gran Canaria, Tenerife, Gomera, and La Palma), mainly on northern coasts, and is likely to occur around other Macaronesian islands.
Indicators of Quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.  Indicators which have been developed for the assessment of ecological quality of coastal water bodies for the Water Framework Directive (WFD) that are relevant to this habitat include a consideration of macroalgae species richness, proportions of different taxa of algae present, and the abundance and coverage of the rocky surfaces by typical species. 
Characteristic species:
Bangia atropurpurea and Porphyra spp.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405)
Level 4 . A sub-habitat of ‘High Energy littoral rock’ (A1.1) with modification to include Macaronesia.
 
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock & biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
 
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
There is insufficient information to determine whether this habitat is an outstanding example of typical characteristics of the North East Atlantic region.

Trends in Quantity:
There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in intertidal areas which are subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quality. As it occurs in intertidal areas which are subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threat to this habitat is related to the high intensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades. They include harbour construction, tourism resorts, poorly managed waste disposal and sewage discharge all of which have exerted siginificant pressures on habitats in the littoral zone including this intertidal rocky habitat.
The increase in international maritime traffic in the harbours of the main cities in the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance work may potentially lead to the introduction of marine exotic species. The ecological effects of such species on Macaronesiam habitats have not been evaluated.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is included within some Macaronesian Special Areas of Conservation such as Los Islotes on Lanzarote, Lobos Islands, Fuerteventura and the Garafia Coastal Area on La Palma. There are associated management measures, regulations and codes of conduct in these Marine Protected Areas but not necessarily targeting this specific habitat. Regulation of coastal development, improved management of discharges to the marine environment and controls on the potential introduction of invasive species are other measures that could benefit this habitat.

Summary:
This intertidal habitat occurs on isolated rocky shores of bedrock and boulders in areas exposed to wave action during high tides as well as to the swell of large storms. It includes facies characterised by discontinuous belts of the red algae Bangia atropurpurea  and  Porphyra spp and the associated fauna  include littorinids, and crustaceans such as hermit crabs, acorn barnacle, and the Sally Lightfoot crab (Grapsus adscensionis). It has been recorded from both the Azores (San Miguel) and the Canary Islands (e.g. La Palma, Tenerife, Lanzarote, and Gran Canaria), mainly on northern coasts, and is likely to occur around other Macaronesian islands.
The main pressures and threats are destruction or modification of the habitat as a result of coastal development. These include the construction of harbours and tourist resorts which can extend across the intertidal zone or affect the wave exposure. Waste disposal and sewage discharges to the marine environment are other activities which can damage or degrade the biotopes associated with this habitat. More recently, oil-platform maintenance works are a potential entrance vector for marine exotic species although any ecological effects on Macaronesia habitats have not been yet evaluated.
Beneficial measures include the regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as controls on the introduction of invasive species. Marine Protected Areas which include this habitat can act as a focus for the introduction of such measures.

References:
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 22/08/2014).
Haroun. R., Gil-Rodríguez, M.C., Wildpret de la Torre, W., & Prud’homme van Reine, W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. Las Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P. et al. 2013. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. MeshAtlantic. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAc, p.126.
Templado J, Ballesteros E, Galparsoro I, Borja A, Serrano A, Marín L and Brito. 2012. Guía interpretativa inventario español de habitats y especies marinos. Madrid: Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente.

Criterion A Text:
This habitat is only present in the EU 28 in the North East Atlantic region. There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in shallow waters, in areas subject to pressure from development, it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The scale of any such future decline cannot be estimated at the present time. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under Criteria A .

Criterion B Text:
The area of this habitat has not been quantified however current knowledge, based on expert opinion, is that EOO >50,000 km2 therefore it does not have a restricted geographical distribution. The AOO has been estimated as 16  indicating it is only present in a small number of 10 x 10km grid squares but this is believed to be an underestimate. There is a lack of information on trends.  
The known distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1 (c), B2 (c) and B3 and Data Deficient under criteria B1 (a,b) and B2 (a,b).

Criterion C/D Text:
This habitat occurs in the littoral zone of the Macaronesian islands which are subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification. There is insufficient information to determine historical or future trends in quality although it is considered likely to decline in quality in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.  This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under Criteria C/D.

Synthesis:
This habitat is only present in the EU 28 in the North East Atlantic region. There is insufficient information to determine historical, current or future trends in quantity or quality although it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The known distribution is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once.
This habitat has large EOO and therefore qualifies as Least Concern under criterion B1. The AOO suggests it could be Endangered under criterion B2 however,  given the lack of information on trends in quantity and quality, and the fact that the overall distribution is unknown, expert opinion is this habitat should be considered Data Deficient.

Assessors:
Haroun, R., Otero-Ferrer, F.,  Gubbay, S., and Sanders, N.


Habitat Type Name:
A3.2x Macaronesian seaweed communities on moderate energy infralittoral rock

Habitat Description:
This habitat occurs predominantly on moderately wave-exposed bedrock and boulders, that are subject to moderately strong to weak tidal streams. Two associated biotopes have been described in the Azores archipelago. The first is dominated by Codium elisabethae, Halopteris filicina and coralline crusts on moderate to sheltered bedrock. The second is characterised by dense patches of the green alga Caulerpa webbiana. This species was first reported in the Azores in 2002 and although not considered an invasive species in other parts of Macaronesia or the world it has many characteristics of such a species in the Azores.
 In the southern Macaronesian archipelagos, a more diverse sub-set of habitats are recognised, such as that defined by Stypocaulon scoparium / Halopteris filicina (A3.2X3), more frequent in Azores and Madeira archipelagos and with fewer locations in Selvagem and the Canary Islands.
Other representative biotopes in the Canarian archipelago are barren grounds of the long spined sea urchin Diadema africanum (A3.2X4) or those constructed by other sea urchin species Arbacia lixula  or Paracentrotus lividus on shallower infralittoral volcanic rocks (A3.2X5). Corynactis viridis defines another interesting biotope (A.3.2X6) mainly associated with sea urchins whereas different zooantids, such as Isaurus tuberculatus, Zoanthus spp. and Palythoa  spp  are characteristic elements of another biotope (A3.2X7) in hard bottoms.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time. 
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
In the barren ground biotope, the associated species are the damselfish Chromis limbata, the arrow crab Stenorhynchus lanceolatus, the shrimp Tuleariopsis neglecta and the parasitic mollusc Echineulima leucophaes. The floristic component is very sparse with small specimens of the genera Dyctiota, Lobophora and Liagora.
Other introduced species like the red algae Asparagopsis spp. and the ascidean Distaplia corolla are the most common associated biota with the Caulerpa biotope in Azorean waters.  Associated biota in the Codium biotope includes Zonaria tournefortii, Bryopsis spp., encrusting brown algae, Microdictyon calodictyon and the boring sponge Cliona celata. Associated biota in the Halopteris filicina biotope are Padina pavonica, Asparagopsis spp., Zonaria tournefortii and the sea urchin Arbacia lixula.

Classification:
EUNIS:
Proposed new level 4 of the EUNIS classification (2004) to incorporate Macaronesian level 5 habitats. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic and Mediterranean moderate energy infralittoral rock’ (A3.2).
 
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs
                                                                                                                    
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral rock & biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow photic rock or biogenic reef
 
IUCN:
9.2 Subtidal rock and rocky reefs

Trends in Quantity:
There is insufficient information on past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in shallow waters which are subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification (such as eutrophication processes) it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient information about this habitat to determine historical trends in quality. As it occurs in shallow waters which are subject to different degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification (such as eutrophication processes), it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is included within some Marine Protected Areas where there are associated management measures, regulations and codes of conduct but not necessarily targeting this specific habitat. Regulation of coastal development, discharges to the marine environment and control on activities that may potentially lead to the introduction of invasive species are other measures that could benefit this habitat.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
There is insufficeint information to determine whether this habitat retains the capacity to recover when severely damaged.

Summary:
This infralittoral habitat occurs on bedrock and boulders in areas that are subject to moderately strong to weak tidal streams. It is present on all the Macaronesian archipelagos although different associated biotopes may be present depending on location. Two associated biotopes have been described in the Azores archipelago. The first is dominated by Codium elisabethae, Halopteris filicina and coralline crusts and the second by the green alga Caulerpa webbiana which was first reported in the Azores in 2002. In the southern Macaronesian archipelagos, a more diverse set of biotopes characterised by algae are recognised as well as the barren grounds created through the actions of sea urchins such as Diadema africanum.
The main threat to this habitat is related to the high intensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades. This has exerted significant pressures on coastal habitats and can have a detrimental effect on adjacent sublittoral habitats such as this. Fishing and poaching activities are other important indirect causes of habitat degradation in the infralittoral zone. The increase of international maritime traffic in the harbours of the main cities of the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance work, are a potential entrance vector for marine exotic species although any ecological effects on Macaronesia habitats have not been yet evaluated.
Beneficial measures include the regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as controls on the introduction of invasive species. Marine Protected Areas which include this habitat can act as a focus for the introduction of such measures.

References:
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 22/08/2014). 
Tempera, F., E. Atchoi, P. Amorim, J. Gomes-Pereira and J. Gonçalves. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Haroun, R, Gil-Rodríguez M.C., Wildpret de la Torre, W., Prud’homme van Reine W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. La Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.              
Templado, J., Ballesteros, E., Galparsoro, I., Borja, A., Serrano, A., Martín, L & Brito, A.  2012. Guía Interpretativa: Inventario Español de Hábitats Marinos. Madrid: Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente.

Criterion A Text:
This habitat is only present in the EU 28 in the North East Altantic region. There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in shallow waters, in areas subject to pressure from development, it is
considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The scale of any such future decline cannot be estimated at the present time. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria A.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. Historical trends are unknown but there may be declines in the future. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1(b,c) B2 (b, c) and B3 and Data Deficient for all other criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
This habitat occurs in the infralittoral zone of the Macaronesian islands which are subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification. There is insufficient information to determine historical or future trends in quality although it is considered likely to decline in quality in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criteria C/D.

Assessors:
R. Haroun Tabraue, F. Otero-Ferrer, S. Gubbay and N. Sanders


Habitat Type Name:
A3.3X/3.33 Macaronesian submerged fucoids, green or red seaweeds on full salinity infralittoral rock

Habitat Description:
This habitat is found throughout the Macaronesian islands in rocky infralittoral areas and is characterised by the presence of many photophilic algae.
In shallow waters 2-3m around the Azores the habitat is dominated by Codium fragile although in places the invasive species C. fragile spp. tomentosoides has also become established.  In the southern Macaronesian archipelagos of Madeira, Selvagen and the Canaries other Codium  spp. are characteristic elements of this habitat either as conspicuous narrow belt of crustose species (C. intertextum, C. adhaerens) in the infralittoral fringe, globlose to subglobose, somewhat flattened specimens of C. elisabethiae / C. bursa, or frondose and large specimens in crevices and overhangs (C. taylorii) or attached to pebbles (C. decorticatum).
In shallow sublittoral rocks, it is also possible to find the biotope of the green macroalgae Dasycladus vermicularis - Halimeda discoidea -Acetabularia acetabulum  with the gasteropod Elysia timida.  Where there is some organic matter sedimentation the red algae Halopithys incurva, Digenea simplex, Rytiphlaea tinctoria and Alsidium corallinum are more common.
The fucoids Cystoseira mauritanica, C. tamariscifolia  and sometimes, C. abies-marina and c. foeniculacea, Sargassum vulgare - S. desfontainesii - S. furcatum are the main elements of other biotopes, with many marine invertebrates associated (copepods, amphipods, hydrozoans, etc.). A seasonal biotope during spring – summer months is characterized by Sporochnus spp.
In deeper waters with low light intensity the associated biotopes include those characterised by the red macroalgae Botryocladia, Halymenia, Sebdenia and less frequently Kallymenia.  In some detritic sediments, the introduced tropical green seaweed Caulerpa racemosa  var. cylindracea  could be observed between 10 - 50 m. depth. Associated species are the polychaete Ditrupa arietina, decapods such as Paromola cuvieri and Cancer bellianus, bryozoans of the genus Cupuladria and the sea urchins Cidaris cidaris and Genocidaris maculata.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
In the Canary Islands, common associated species are the anthozoan Palythoa canariensis and the bivalve Spondylus senegalensis as well as the red macroalgae Nemastoma canariensis and the esponges Aplysina aerophoba e Ircinia spp. The Azores archipelago is the southwestern limit of distribution of Codium fragile ssp. atlanticum but the invasive species C. fragile ssp. tomentosoides has also established successful populations in the archipelago.  
The biodiversity of these biotopes is high, with the dominant macroalgal species associated with other macroalgae, such as the perennial species Halopteris scoparia  Cladostephus spongiosus and Padina pavonica or the annual  green macroalgae Acetabularia acetabulum. Among these species it is possible to observe turf species, such as Ellisondia elongata  Jania rubens, Jania corniculata or Haliptilon virgatum, Amphiroa rigida, erect species such as Liagora distenta, Hypnea musciformis, H. cervicornis, or epiphytes as Falkenbergia rufolanosa. Among gastropod molluscs, Haliotis tuberculata, Gibbula  spp., Rissoa  spp., Aplysia  spp., Elysia timida, Ocenebra erinacea, Ocinebrina edwardsi, Stramonita haemastoma and Nassarius incrassatus are observed. The most common echinoderms are Sphaerechinus granularis, Paracentrotus lividus and Arbacia lixula (sometimes also the long spined sea urchin Diadema africanum) and the seastar Echinaster sepositus. The icthyofauna is diverse and common species are Sparus aurata, Sciaena umbra, Ephinephelus marginatus and Hippocampus hipppocampus.

Classification:
EUNIS (2004):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic and Mediterranean low energy infralittoral rock’ (A3.3) modified to incorporate Macaronesian habitats.
 
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral rock & biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow photic rock or biogenic reef
 
IUCN:
9.2 Subtidal rock and rocky reefs

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
There is insufficient information to determine whether this habitat is an outstanding example of  typical characteristics of the North East Atlantic region.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient information about this habitat to determine historical trends in quality. As it occurs in shallow waters which are subject to different types and degrees of human pressures such as habitat destruction or modification it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
100% is hosted by EU 28 in the North East Atlantic Macaronesian region.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it is present in the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat does not have a small natural range as it is present in the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threat to this habitat is related to the high intensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades. Harbour construction and tourism resorts have exerted significant pressures on coastal habitats and can result in increased sedimentation and changes in the hydrogological regime, with detrimental effects on adjacent sublittoral habitats such as this. Illegal fishing and poaching activities have become important indirect causes of habitat degradation in the infralittoral zone. Poorly managed waste disposal and sewage discharge can be an additional pressure.
The increase of international maritime traffic in the harbours of the main cities of the Canaries archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance work, may potentially lead to the introduction of marine exotic species. The ecological effects of such species in Macaronesian habitats have not been evaluated.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is included within some Marine Protected Areas where there are associated management measures, regulations and codes of conduct but not necessarily targetting this specific habitat. Regulation of coastal development and discharges to the marine environment and control of activities that might lead to the  introduction of invasive species are other measures that could benefit this habitat.

Summary:
This habitat, found throughout the Macaronesian islands, in rocky infralittoral areas and is characterised by the presence of many photophilic algae. The species and associated biotopes are strongly influenced by light levels with green algae such as Codium species in the shallowest lightest conditoins, fucoids (e.g. species of Cystoseria  and Sargassum), and in areas of low light intensity red algae such as Botryocladia  spp., Halymenia spp. and, Sebdenia spp. There is an abundant and diverse associated fauna including molluscs, crustaceans echinoderms and numerous fish.
The main threat to this habitat is related to the high intensity of urban coastal development which has taken place on the most populated islands of Macaronesia in recent decades. This has exerted significant pressures on coastal habitats and can have a detrimental effect on adjacent sublittoral habitats such as this. Fishing and poaching activities are other important indirect causes of habitat degradation in the infralittoral zone. The increase of international maritime traffic in the harbours of the main cities of the Canaries Archipelago and, more recently, oil-platform maintenance work, are a potential entrance vector for marine exotic species although any ecological effects on Macaronesia habitats have not been yet evaluated.
Beneficial measures include the regulation of coastal development and of discharges to the marine environment as well as controls on the introduction of invasive species. Marine Protected Areas which include this habitat can act as a focus for the introduction of such measures.

References:
Araujo, R., Freitas, M. and Monteiro. 2008. Eco-Parque Marinho do Funchal. Câmara Municipal do Funchal. Madeira: Portugal, 8. 
Bianchi, C.N., Morri, C., Sartoni, G. and Wirtz, P. 1998. Sublittoral epibenthic communities around Funchal (Ilha da Madeira, NE Atlantic). Bol.Mus.Mun.Funchal 5: 59-80.
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view [online]. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed 22/08/2014).
Haroun R, Gil-Rodríguez MC, Wildpret de la Torre W, Prud’homme van Reine W. 2008. Marine Plants of the Canary Islands. Las Palmas: BlaBla Ediciones.
Tempera, F., E. Atchoi, P. Amorim, J. Gomes-Pereira and J. Gonçalves. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Wallenstein F, Neto A, Álvaro N, Titley I and Azevedo JM. 2008. Coastal biotope definition manual for oceanic islands. Ponta Delgada: Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do Mar.

Criterion A Text:
This habitat is only present in the EU 28 in the North East Atlantic region. There is insufficient information on the past extent of this habitat to determine historical trends in quantity. As it occurs in shallow waters, in areas subject to pressure from development, it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced. The scale of any such future decline cannot be estimated at the present time. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criterion A for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000 km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. Past trends are unknownand it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation actions are not taken. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1(b,c) B2 (b,c) and B3 and Data Deficient for all other criteria.

Synthesis:
There is insufficient information to determine historical, current or future trends in quantity or quality of this habitat although it is considered likely to decline in the future if conservation measures are not introduced.
This habitat has a large EOO and AOO, and therefore qualifies as Least Concern under criterion B. However the habitat is assessed as Data Deficient both at the EU 28 and EU 28+ levels given the lack of information on its trends in quantity and quality and the fact that its overall distribution is unknown.

Assessors:
R. Haroun Tabraue, F.Otero-Ferrer, S. Gubbay and N. Sanders.

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group. S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F.Otero-Ferrer, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun Tabraue, N. Sanders.


Habitat Type Name:
G3.2 Temperate subalpine Larix, Pinus cembra and Pinus uncinata woodland

Habitat Description:
This habitat consist of coniferous woodlands of the mid sub-alpine belt in high mountains of the temperate zone, forming the tree-line at 1,500 m Asl and above in the Carpathians and reaching 2,400 m Asl in the Alps and the Pyrenees. At these altitudes, the growing season is becoming so short and cold that the limit for tree growth is approached. Snow is long-lasting but not deep enough to favour willow shrub and tall-herb vegetation. Pinus uncinata can also be found in lower mountain ranges (such as Jura) on clifs or rocks exposed to harsh weather conditions. In the Pyrenees Mountains, only Pinus uncinata woodlands can be found. Depending on the habitat variant, the main dominant trees can be Larch (Larix decidua), Arolla pine (P. Cembra) and/or Mountain Pine (Pinus uncinata). Larch and Arolla pine only occur in the Alps and the Carpathians. Larch is often dominant in pastured wood, and Arolla Pine in more mature stands. In the Southern Alps and the Carpathians, Mountain dwarf pine (P. mugo) is often in the understorey. Where this dwarf pine dominates towards the upper sub-alpine belt, the vegetation is included in F 2.4 subalpine shrub. Included are also perialpine river valleys with Pinus forests of Pinus mugo s.l. (erect forms including P. x rhaetica) and/ or Pinus uncinata as rare relict forests reaching lower altitudes in the alpine river valleys. Sorbus spp. are characteristic associates in the canopy with S. aucuparia, S. aria, S. mougeotii and S. chamaemespilus, often along with some Picea abies and Abies alba (never dominant). The woodland structure is often rather clustered, open and lightly shading but the part- or wholly-evergreen dwarf-shrubs typical beneath often grow so dense that herbs can be sparse. Among these dwarf-shrubs, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, V. uliginosum, Juniperus nana (= J. sibirica) occur throughout the range. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi and Cotoneaster integerrimus can be found on warmer slopes. Erica carnea occurs outside the higher Alps on northern slopes. Rhododendron spp. is more restricted: R. ferrugineum and R. hirsutum in various parts of the Alps and the former in the Pyrenees, R. myrtifolium in the Carpathians, together with Daphne oleoides. Where the cover of these dwarf-shrubs exceeds the trees and the tree cover becomes rather open, the vegetation is included in F2.2a Alpine and sub-alpine ericoid heath. These woodlands occur on a variety of rock types with different soils which, along with the contrasts in climate across the range, sustain a diversity of field layers, the distinctiveness of the flora increasing to the south. Graminoids are common and, in moist hollows and seepages, a contingent of montane tall-herbs is characteristic (Calamagrostis villosa, Luzula albida, L. sieberi, Festuca flavescens, F. drymaeia...). Subalpine and alpine plants such as Homogyne alpina or Dryas octopetala are also characteristic.
Indicators of quality:
Tree-line at its natural limit with intact woodland structure.
Sufficient structural diversity/ complexity (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers.
Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying and standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi.
Typical flora and fauna composition of the region.
Sufficient proportion of historically old (ancient) woodland with high species diversity.
Survival of larger stands of forest without fragmentation and isolation.
Absence of non-native tree species and absence of invasive aliens in all layers (fauna, flora).
No signs of impacts of alpine pasturing.
Absence of damage from trampling, skiing lanes and avalanches around winter sports centre.

Characteristic species:
Tree canopy: Larix decidua, Pinus uncinata var. uncinata, P. mugo s.l. (erect forms), P. cembra, Sorbus aucuparia, S. aria, S. chamaemespilus, Picea abies, Abies alba, Juniperus communis, Acer pseudoplatanus; Understorey: Rhododendron hirsutum, R. ferrugineum, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Cotoneaster integerrimus, Juniperus sibirica, Rosa pendula, Rubus idaeus, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Daphne mezereum, Erica herbacea (= E. Carnea), Calluna vulgaris; Field layer: Deschampsia flexuosa, Sesleria caerulea, Rubus saxatilis, Hieracium murorum agg., Oxalis acetosella, Geranium sylvaticum, Melampyrum sylvaticum, Solidago virgaurea, Calamgrostis varia, C. villosa, Polygala chamaebuxus, Potentilla erecta, Valeriana tripteris, Carex alba, C. flacca, Luzula albida, Festuca flavescens, F. drymaeia, Homogyne alpina.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G3.2 Alpine [Larix] – [Pinus cembra] woodland and G3.3 Pinus uncinata woodland
EuroVegChecklist:
Erico carneae-Pinion Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1939 nom. invers. propos.
Piceion excelsae Pawlowski et al. 1928
Seslerio caeruleae-Pinion uncinatae Vigo 1974
Annex 1:
9420 Alpine Larix decidua and/or Pinus cembra forests
9430 Subalpine and montane Pinus uncinata forests (* if on gypsum or limestone)
Emerald:
G3.21 Eastern Alpine siliceous Larix and Pinus cembra forests
G3.22 Eastern Alpine calcicolous Larix and Pinus cembra forests
G3.25 Carpathian Larix and Pinus cembra forests
G3.26 Larix polonica forests
G3.31 Pinus uncinata forests with Rhododendron ferrugineum
G3.32 Xerocline Pinus uncinata forests
MAES :
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
European Forest Types:
3.1 Subalpine larch-arolla pine and dwarf pine forest
VME:
C.3 Sub-alpine and oro-Mediterranean vegetation (forests, krummholz and dwarf shrub communities in combination with grasslands and tall-herb communities).

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Subalpine Larch and Pine forests represents the forest climax and the natural vegetation of subalpine belt, just below the tree line. Thoses forests are the natural habitat for emblematic species, as Grouse, eagles (whose large nest can be built in large pines or larches) or large mammals. They have been clearcut in many location for cattle grazing.

Map Description:
The map is likely to be complete, although the distribution in the Carpathians may be underestimated and in the Pyrenees and the Alps overstimated, as the habitat is not present or very rare at lower altitudes and in the outer Alps. Data sources: Art17, EVA.

Comment EU28:
Current area is 5,209 kmÂ² (reported for Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain) + 76 kmÂ² for Poland according to 76 kmÂ² according to art17 report.

Comment EU28+:
Current area is 5,749 kmÂ² (reported for Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland) + 76 kmÂ² for Poland according to 76 kmÂ² according to art17 report.

Trends in Quantity:
The original extend of this forest type has been decreasing for thousands of years because of clear cutting or burning for cattle grazing. Such grasslands have been used especially in the summer, when low altitude grasslands are dry.
There is no clear average trend for the last 200 years in Europe. A decline is reported for Spain (- 20%) and Germany (- 50 to 70 %). On the contrary, agricultural decline has been reported in many other countries from mid/late XIXth century (long historical trend), and has caused an expansion of forests in many mountain ranges (Schnitzler and Génot 2012). A 30% increase is reported in Switzerland, and the trend could be more or less the same in France (no precise data available).
Trends reported for the last 50 years indicate a slight increase in the EU 28 and EU 28+ on average, but there are slight differences between western and central Europe. The situation is more or less stable in Italy, Austria and Germany. The only reported increases come from Switzerland (+ 20 %) and France (+ 10 %), while a decrease is reported for a few countries (- 25 % in Romania, -10 % in Slovakia). The 20 % increase reported in France (IFN Data, BIR comm. pers) since 1970 but concerns all Larix, Pinus cembra and P. uncinata forests, including plantations and pioneer stands in mountain zones, evolving to Fir or spruce forest. These woodlands are not included in this habitat, and a 10 % increase might be assumed for the real Temperate subalpine Larix , Pinus cembra and Pinus uncinata woodlands in France.
The current trend is better than the past one. The situation is stable in France, Germany, Slovenia, Slovakia and Switzerland, and an increase is reported in Austria, Italy and Spain. The only country reporting a current decrease is Romania.

Trends in Quality:
Most countries report a decrease in quality over the last 50 years (Austria, Germany, Italy, Romania and Switzerland). Spain reports an increase in quality and the situation is stable in Slovenia. There is no data from France and Slovakia. The average trend is a slight to moderate degradation (40% severity) affecting 40% of the area.
A stable current trend in quality is reported in most countries, except in Switzerland (increase in quality), Austria (decrease) and Romania (strong decrease). The situation is not clear in France with only expert estimations, but might be close to stability with important differences depending on the site. Quality can be getting better concerning deadwood or old trees in remote location for Pine subtypes (no more logging), or decreasing in more accessible sites with overgrazing due to very large sheep flocks and/or intensive logging. The average trend might be close to stable in Europe.
The trend might be slightly different for Larch subtypes, and is probably worse than the trend for the Arola pine subtype: an intensive grazing or logging is a degradation for both subtypes (lack of deadwood and destruction of saplings) but a complete lack of grazing is also a problem for Larch subtype, because a moderate grazing pressure eliminates Pine (Larch saplings can survive but Pine saplings can't).

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Of the current distribution of the habitat type, 90% lies within the EU 28. Most of the remaining 10% can be found in Switzerland.

Justification of Restricted Area:
Natural range restricted to high mountain ranges but covering a large area.

Pressures and Threats:
The development of skiing facilities (causing deforestation and fragmentation), intensive grazing (affecting flora composition and regeneration of trees) and climate change are reported as threats in most countries. Pollution (especially air pollution) is reported in Germany and Romania. Deforestation is reported in Romania and Slovakia, road construction (causing deforestation and fragmentation). Inappropriate forestry management (forest replanting) is reported in Switzerland.

Conservation and Management:
Both integrative and segregative approaches are needed for temperate subalpine Larix , Pinus cembra or Pinus uncinata woodlands. In most areas, the development of sustainable forest management measures can help conserve most structures, functions and characteristic species of this habitat. No exotic tree planting, small cuts instead of large clear cutting, the conservation of deadwood, veteran trees and trees with microhabitats (broken tops, cracks or scars, hollow chambers, stem cavities, bark bowls and pockets, burls...) play a key role in maintaining not only forest biodiversity but also social and economical functions (forest productivity especially concerning deadwood, protection against erosion or avalanches if no large clear cuts are made, etc...).
Sustainable forest management can be promoted through forest certification, in the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, public forests, and category V and VI of IUCN Protected Areas. Unlike most forest habitats, the management of some particular types of subalpine Larix woodlands (pastured Larix woods) includes moderate grazing. Grazing fosters Larch and rich undergrowth. Grazing should not occur too early, in order to avoid disturbance to birds (especially Black grouse -Tetrao tetrix- and western capercaillie -Tetrao urogallus), and is only appropriated in certain subtypes.
Even in the most sustainably managed forests, logging cuts the end of the forests cycle (the mature and veteran stands are rare, deadwood volumes can never be the same as in unmanaged forest). It stresses the need of a network of vast (more than 100 ha each) unmanaged forests, where the whole forest cycle can be fully accomplished. Those strictly protected areas should be  located in categories I and II IUCN Protected Areas, and the most remarkable forests should also be protected.
To face global warming, the ability of those subalpine forests to colonize new areas on higher ground is very important, especially on present open land.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types :
9420 Alpine Larix decidua and/or Pinus cembra forests. Status : ALP : FV
9430 Subalpine and montane Pinus uncinata forests (* if on gypsum or limestone). Status : ALP : U1, CON : FV, MED : U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Larch and Pines are some of the oldest living trees in Europe, and their growth is very slow in subalpine forest. Studies show that biodiversity linked to dead wood or veteran trees can increase 30 years after the cessation of forest management (Paillet et al. 2010), but it is certainly slower at such high altitudes. A minimum of 50 years seams required in case of small degradation, and 200+ years of effort if severely damaged. More extensive degradation such as removal of all deadwood, large trees, or even clearing followed by agriculture would take more than 200 years, according to the short growing season in subalpine forests and the time required to have large enough trees and deadwood. Most of the recovery would come from the recolonization of typical species but the plantation of pines or larch can speed up the process.

Summary:
This habitat consists of coniferous woodlands of the mid sub-alpine belt in high mountains of the temperate zone, where the growing season is becoming so short and cold that the limit for tree growth is approached but where snow-lie is not deep enough to favour willow shrub and tall-herb vegetation. The woodland structure is often rather clustered, open and lightly shading and the part- or wholly-evergreen dwarf-shrubs typical beneath often grow so dense that herbs can be sparse. The habitat occurs on a variety of rock types with different soils which, along with the contrasts in climate across the range, sustain a diversity of field layers, the distinctiveness of the flora increasing to the south. Graminoids are common and, in moist hollows and seepages, a contingent of montane tall-herbs is characteristic. Deforestation, mostly due to the development of skiing facilities, intensive grazing and climate change are important threats. Conservation measures include sustainable forest management and maintenance of a network of unmanaged forests.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G., Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Raus, T., Schlüter, H. and Weber, H. 2004. Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe.  Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz. Council of Europe (2010), Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. and Hill, M.O. 2004. EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised.  Report to the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency. European Commission DG Environment. 2007. Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency. 2006. European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No 9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. and Rodwell, J.S. 2013. Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Paillet Y., Bergès L., Hjältén J., Odor P., Avon C., Bernhardt-Römermann M., Bijlsma R.J., De Bruyn L., Fuhr M., Grandin U., Kanka R., Lundin L., Luque S., Magura T., Matesanz S., Mészáros I., Sebastià M.T., Schmidt W., Standovár T., Tóthmérész B., Uotila A., Valladares F., Vellak K. and Virtanen R. 2010. Biodiversity differences between managed and unmanaged forests: meta-analysis of species richness in Europe. Conservation Biology 24 (1) : 101-112.
Piedallu, C., Perez, V., Gegout, JC., Lebourgeois, F. and Bertrand, R. 2009. Impact potentiel du changement climatique sur la distribution de l’Epicéa, du Sapin, du Hêtre et du Chêne sessile en France. Revue Forestière Française, 61, 6, 567-594.
Lenoir, J., Gégout, J.C., Marquet, P.A., Ruffray, P. and Brisse, H. 2008. A Significant Upward Shift in Plant Species Optimum Elevation During the 20th Century. Science 27 June 2008 Vol. 320 no. 5884 pp. 1768-1771.

Criterion A Text:
There has been an increase in the quantity of this habitat in the last 50 years, 1.3% in the EU 28 and 3.1% in the EU 28+ (calculated on 81 % of the EU 28 area and 83 % of the EU 28+ area). There is not enough quantitative data to assess the historic or future trends in quantity for this habitat, which is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
There is no continuing decline neither in the EOO or the AOO of this habitat type, and there is no threatening process foreseen in the next 20 years that is likely to cause continuing declines in quantity and/or quality. This habitat is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
There has been a slight to moderate reduction in quality (40% severity) affecting almost half of the EU 28 area (47%), and 42% of the EU 28+ area. The available data includes 68% of the area in the EU 28 and 70% in the EU 28+. There is no trend for France, and a slight degradation is reported for Austria (unknown extent).
Reduction in quality in the future is still unknown but the result would likely lead to an assessment of Vulnerable because of climate change. Reduction in abiotic quality (temperature, snow cover...) would lead to a reduction in biotic quality because of the disappearing of species and tree dieback. Changes in plant distribution and community composition are not only predicted (Marage and Gégout 2011 ; Van der Veken et al. 2004) but are already reported, especially in the mountain and subalpine belts, with changes in the composition of the herb layer (Lenoir et al. 2008 ; Lenoir 2009 ; Grabherr et al. 1994 ; Klanderud and Birks 2003). Models only predict the Larch niche model, not the whole habitat niche, but without Larch or Pine there would be a shift to another habitat type.
Such changes may cause the habitat to colonize the actual alpine belt (not wooded yet) but also disappear at lower altitudes because of the colonization of more shade tolerant mountain trees (fir, spruce, beech). Global warming is too fast and important to forecast just a shift in altitude (new surfaces at higher altitudes of the habitat with the same flora making up for the disappearance of the habitat at low altitudes), and it is likely that the flora will be less typical in both new sites and sites situated at lower altitudes. Most of the area could be affected within 100 years, except in cooler sites. A 30 % severity (corresponding to a slight or unknown decrease) can be expected. Even if such a negative trend is strongly possible, data is still judged as insufficient to estimate precise values. This habitat is therefore assessed as Near Threatened under C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no available information to do a quantitative analysis of the risk of habitat collapse. This habitat is therefore assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
The present trend in quantity is now slightly increasing or close to stability, but the present-past reduction in quality leads to the Near Threatened category because of the slight to moderate (40% in severity) recent decrease in quality on 47% of the area in EU 28 (42 % in EU 28+).
An assessment based on more precise data could have possibly led to the VU category, because even if the situation is probably close to stability in France, the quality is also decreasing in Austria. Even if a future trend is not possible to determine, studies about climate change impact on vegetation already show a shift in altitude for subalpine species and climate change is probably going to affect more subalpine habitats than lower altitudes one, both in quality and quantity (replacement of larch and Pine by Spruce and Fir at lower altitudes). Finally, some subtypes can be more endangered than others (Larch subtypes).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Pasture Larch woods seems to be more endangered. A too intensive management (intensive logging, overgrazing due to large flocks let without shepherd) is a threat, but for this subtype a complete lack of management (no more grazing) is a problem to. In

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Rodwell & B. Renaux
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, R. Delarze, P. Finck, N. Juvan, J. Loidi, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, B. Renaux, U. Riecken, J. Rodwell, A. Ssymank, M. ValachoviÄ, D. Viciani, W. Willner


