# European Red List of Habitats Table

Habitat Type Name:
C1.1a Permanent oligotrophic waterbody with very soft-water species

Habitat Description:
Oligotrophic waters of sandy plains and rocky substrates (granites, gravel, stones, till, moraines) containing very few minerals. The substrates are covered by a thin layer of detritus. The water is carbon deficient and very poorly buffered (low alkalinity). The water is weakly acid to circumneutral. Concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus are very low and in the oligotrophic range. The water is clear sometimes humic (brown) but always with a very low concentration of chlorophyll. The vegetation is low in species diversity and dominated by aquatic isoetids, i.e. submerged plants with a small rosette of stiff leaves and an extended root system. Aquatic isoetids are adapted to low carbon availability (low pH) by taking up carbon from the sediment through their extended root system, by an adapted carbon fixation (C4), and by re-using carbon-dioxide produced during respiration. The vegetated layer extends from the littoral to lower parts of the sub-littoral zone. The vegetation and its substrate are mechanically influenced by water movement, ice sheets and wind exposition. Sometimes these oligotrophic water bodies can be almost totally unvegetated. In the temperate, Atlantic zone the characteristic isoetid vegetation occurs in lakes fluctuating in water levels where they may be semi-permanent in the summer periods (Arts, 2002; Dierssen, 1996). Apart from the dominant isoetid aquatic macrophytes (i.e. Isoëtes spp.), other plants may be present in addition (Rørslett & Brettum 1989). Important accompanying isoetid species are Lobelia dortmanna, Subularia aquatica in Northern Europe, Eriocaulon aquaticum in Northern-Atlantic Europe or Luronium natans and Isolepis fluitans in Western Europe zones. Subularia aquatica also extends into the mountainous areas of Iberia in this habitat type (Molina et al., 1999).
Many large lakes in northern Europe represent this type or the more mesotrophic type C1.1b in terms of water chemistry and abundant isoetid vegetation. Occurrence and abundance of other growth forms vary according to shore and bottom material, topography, exposition and fetch. Exposed shores have sparse stands of aquatic vegetation, in sheltered bays vegetation has clear zonation, but the stands are still open (Mäkirinta 1978, Rintanen 1982, Toivonen & Lappalainen 1980). The lower limit of submerged vegetation reaches typically the depth of 3-6 meters, sometimes close to 10 meters. Due to postglacial history deeper lakes host some glacial relict crustaceans and vertebrates, including salmonid fish and a critically endangered fresh water seal (Pusa hispida saimensis). Large lakes have diverse waterfowl populations and are important parts of bird migration routes  Main differences between this habitat type and the C1.1b is that this one is constantly in the oligotrophic range and therefore is generally poorer than C1.1b in species and communities. Indicators of good quality isoetid species are the most characteristic species of this habitat.
The following characteristics may be used as indicators of a favourable quality:
• Large stands of isoetid species;
• Absence or very low abundance of peat mosses;
• Absence or very low abundance of water plants from eutrophic and alkaline waters;
• Low abundance of water plants with other growth forms than the isoetid growth form, e.g. floating or emerged plants e.g. Potamogeton species or Sparganium angustifolium stands or helophytes (Phragmites australis, Eleocharis spp., Equisetum fluviatile, Carex spp.);
• Long-term habitat stability, with no rapid successional trends (e.g. no trends in acidification or eutrophication);
• Low concentrations of nutrients and chlorophyll (approximately P < 15 μg/L and chlorophyll < 3 μg/L.);
• pH weakly acid to circumneutral ( pH 5.5 - 7), alkalinity < 0.5 meq/L. (Note: Chemical and physical parameters are only indicative, they may change in different geographical area and climatic conditions).
• Thin layer of detritus (no accumulation of organic mud);
• No/ little impact from acidification or regulation;
• Absence or very low abundance of submerged or floating mats of macrophytes e.g. Juncus bulbosus;
• Occurrence of conspicuous populations of salmonid fish, but population of roach (Rutilus rutilus) and other Cyprinidae low.
Characteristic species:
Flora. Vascular plants: Boreo-atlantic: Plantago uniflora (syn. Littorella uniflora), Lobelia dortmanna, Isoëtes echinospora, I. lacustris, Eriocaulon aquaticum. Potamogeton epihydrus, P. polygonifolius, Eleocharis acicularis, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Juncus bulbosus; Boreal: Subularia aquatica, Ranunculus reptans, Eleocharis acicularis; Atlantic: Isoëtes boryana, I. velata subsp. tenuissima; In the Atlantic presence of other soft-water species e.g. Luronium natans and Isolepis fluitans. Mosses: Warnstorffia procera, W. trichophylla, Scorpidium scorpioides. Macroalgae: Nitella opaca, N. flexilis, N. transluncens. Phytobenthos: Eunotia naegelii, E. incisa,Tabellaria flocculosa, T. binalis, Navicula parasubtilissima. Phytoplankton: typical of this habitat are the algae of the class Chrysophyceae that often tend to be the dominant in the phytoplankton, common species of other classes are Spondylosium pulchellum, Bambusina borreri, Micrasterias truncata, Euastrum binale var. gutwinskii.
Fauna. Macroinvertebrates: Glaenocorisa propinqua, Sigara scotti, Arctocorisa germari. Odonata: Lestes dryas. Diptera: Pseudochironomus prasinatus, Pagastiella orophila, Telmatopelopia nemorum, Zalutschia humphrisiae. Trichoptera: Molanna albicans. Amphipoda: Gammarus lacustris, Gammaracanthus lacustris. Mysida: Mysis relicta. Vertebrates: Fish of family Salmonidae (e.g. Coregonus spp., Salmo spp., Salvelinus spp., Thymallus spp.), Osmarus eperlanus, Lota lota, Sander lucioperca, Perca fluviatilis, Esox Lucius. Birds: Gavia arctica, G. stellata, Anas spp., Aythya spp., Bucephala clangula, Larus fuscus, Mergus merganser, M. serrator, M. albellus, Melanitta nigra, Pandion haliaëtus. Mammals: Lutra lutra, Pusa hispida subsp. saimensis (in Finland).

Classification:
EUNIS:
C.1.1 Permanent oligotrophic lakes, ponds and pools
C3.4 Species-poor beds of low-growing water-fringing or amphibious vegetation
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Subularion aquaticae Hadac 1971
Lobelion dortmannae Vanden Berghen 1964
Littorellion uniflorae Koch ex Klika 1935
Nitellion flexilis Krause 1969
Annex 1:
3110 Oligotrophic waters containing very few minerals of sandy plains (Littorelletalia uniflorae)
Emerald:
C1.1 Permanent oligotrophic lakes, ponds and pools
C3.4 Species-poor beds of low-growing water-fringing or amphibious vegetation
MAES-2:
Rivers and lakes
IUCN:
5.5 Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha)
5.7 Permanent freshwater marshes and pools (under 8 ha)
Water Framework Directive:
LN 101
LCB3

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Oligotrophic very soft water lakes are very characteristic of atlantic, boreal and alpine areas in NW Europe, in regions largely created by the last glaciation. Due to glacial history these water bodies sometimes accomodate relict occurrences of certain fish and crustacea.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete, with data gaps for Iceland and an understimation for Norway. Data: Art17, GBIF, Lit.

Trends in Quantity:
The analyses were made on the basis of data from 14 countries in the EU28 area, and one additional country for EU28+. The area of the habitat has remained relatively stable in northern Europe (Nordic countries), but in Central and Western Europe it suffered from land reclamation for arable land and other land use, as well as nutrient loading from human settlements. In near future the area of habitat seems to be more or less stable. In longer term the climate change and consequent natural eutrophication and brownification of water due humic substances can have impact to the quantity of the type. Changes in quality are, however, more pronounced than changes in quantity.

Trends in Quality:
The quality of the type has declined during last centuries, and also in the recent past (last 50 years). Qualitative decline towards a more nutrient-rich state will continue without water protection measures.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
>60%. European habitats have many counterparts in North America (particularly in the NE North America) and Northern Eurasia in terms of abiotic factors (water quality, soils, climate). The species assemblages of European habitats are however mostly oceanic and in this respect differ on the global scale. In Europe, large parts of the habitat occur in Norway, Belorus and Russia.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is widespread in Europe, with a concentration in Boreal, Atlantic and Alpine regions.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has a large and more or less continuous distribution area in boreal and adjacent alpine regions, and here the habitat may occur as large water bodies. Instead, sites are often small and scattered in central and western Europe.

Pressures and Threats:
Oligotrophic lakes suffered earlier from land reclamation and eutrophication caused by human settlements and agriculture. These pressures have now to some extent replaced by diffuse pollution from intensified agriculture and forestry (drainage, afforestation), and also by air-borne nitrogen input. Hydrological changes, i.e. water abstraction, water level regulation, lack of flooding are important pressures in many countries. Locally fishing or recreation activities have impact to the biota of oligotrophic lakes. The pressures were historically - and still are - more severe in southern and central Europe (also in some areas of the southern boreal zone) where the land use intensity was greater than in the north, or on higher elevations, where many sites remained intact. In future diffuse pollution may have greater impact in the northern areas, partly due to impacts of climate change (raising temperatures, precipitation, increased input of nutrients and humic substances during longer unfrozen periods).

Conservation and Management:
Most important conservation measures is decline of diffuse and point loading from catchment areas of the habitat type, along changing practices in agriculture and forestry. Active water protection measures are sometimes needed. The hydrological regime, including flooding, should be natural. Most representative sites should be legally protected, including their shoreline and littoral communities (in these cases there is need to have sufficient buffering areas with low land use intensity around the water bodies).

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
3110: ALP FV, ATL U2, BOR U1, CON U1, MED XX

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Some sites of this habitat may recover in a time span of some tens of years to natural state, but in most cases interventions related to decline of nutrient loads from catchment areas and diminishing internal loading (in extreme cases by removal of sediment) are required.

Summary:
This is a natural habitat developed in areas with poor bedrock and soils, particularly in regions impacted by the last glaciation or in mountainous areas. Soils in the catchments are mostly poor in nutrients, there is a slow paludification process, and the waters are weakly acid to circumneutral and oligotrophic, clear or brown. Many characteristic species, including plants, fish and crustacea are adapted to the nutrient-poor conditions and cool water temperatures.  The vegetation, which is typically dominated by isoetids, extend from the shallows to the lower sub-littoral and is mechanically affected by water movement, ice and wind.  Much reduced in extent by land reclamation and drainage, particularly in the southern part of its range, the habitat is now threatened by intensive land use in catchments, mostly caused by settlements and intensive agriculture and forestry and by changes in hydrology, including regulation of water table and lack of flooding.  In future, climate change will cause increased stress to the biota of this habitat.

References:
Arts, G.H.P. 2002. Deterioration of Atlantic soft-water macrophyte communities by acidification, eutrophication and alkalinisation. Aquat. Bot. 1566: 1-21.
Carlson, R.E. 1977. A trophic state index for lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22:2 361--369.
Mjelde, M. 2011. Fresh water. - In Lindgaard, A. & Henriksen, S. (eds.). The 2011 Norwegian Red List for Ecosystems and Habitat Types. Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre. Trondheim., pp. 75-80.
Molina, J.A., Sardinero, S. & Pertínez, C. 1999. Soft water vegetation (Littorellion) in Spanish mountains. Folia Geobotanica 34: 253-260.
Rørslett, B., Brettum, P. 1989. The genus Isoëtes in Scandinavia: an ecological review and perspectives. Aquat. Bot., 35, 223–261.
Mäkirinta, U. 1978. Die Pflanzensoziologische Gliederung der Wasservegetation im See Kukkia, Südfinnland. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis. Ser A. 75 (Biologica 5), 157 pp.
Rintanen, T. 1982: Botanical lake types in Finnish Lapland. Annales Botanici Fennici 19: 247-274.
Toivonen, H. & Lappalainen, T. 1980. Ecology and production of aquatic macrophytes in the oligotrophic, mesohumic lake Suomunjärvi, eastern Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici 17: 69-85.

Criterion A Text:
Analysis of changes during the last 50 years was made on the basis of data from 14 countries in the EU28. The longer historical decrease in area was severe in the southern part of the range (eg. The Netherlands and Belgium) but there are too few data available to give quantitative estimation outside these countries. As regards to EU28+ the assessment is incomplete because data from Norway is too rough.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat is relatively widespread in Europe with EOO, AOO and number of locations far beyond the threadholds for criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The analysis was made on the basis of quantitative data combining extent of degradation and severity of degradation from seven EU28+ countries, including major part of the current area of the habitat in the EU28 and EU28+. In most countries estimates have been done as expert judgment and/or on the basis of WPD reporting. In these cases abiotic (physico-chemical parameters) and biotic components (phytoplankton, primary production, fish, macroinvertebrates and aquatic macrophytes) have been evaluated combined. The analysis results in the Near Threatened category using the criterion C/D1 for both EU28 and EU28+. Because of uncertainty in the data different calculations have been carried out, using assumptions about amount and trends of the habitat degradation in Finland and Norway, two countries with the main area of the habitat in Europe.
There is clear evidence that characteristic isoetid species (Isoetes ssp., Lobelia dortmanna) will suffer from climate change and be outcompeted by less-specialised, more competitive species, typical for type C1.b. Because of this a large future decline in quality is expected, with large parts of the habitat (> 80%) being slightly (>30%) affected. This results in the Near Threatened category for C/D2.

Criterion E Text:
No quantitative analysis to evaluate risk of habitat collapse has been made.

Synthesis:
The average decline in quality over the last 50 years results in the category Near Threatened (NT) both in the EU28 and EU28+. Besides, the future trend in quality, roughly based on expert opinion, leads to a Near Threatened category for EU28 and EU28+. The average trend in area was only slightly negative, not leading to any Red List category, but it varied strongly between countries.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Oligotrophic waters with very soft-water species have wide distribution in Europe and deserve further study. Alpine lakes should be assessed separately from lowland lakes. Besides it is clear that oligotrophic waters in West and Central Europe are much

Contributors:
Type description: G. Arts
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, G. Arts, S. Assini, S. Bell, J. Brophy, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, R. Delarze, L. Denys, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, R. Hall,. J. Janssen, T. Kontula, H. Mäemets, A. Mikolajczak, M. Mjelde, J.A. Molina, J. Packet, D. Paelinckx, D. Paternoster, U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Ssymank, W. van Landuyt, E. von Wachenfeldt
Working Group Freshwater habitats: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen


Habitat Type Name:
A1.11: Mytilius edulis and/or barnacle communities on wave-exposed Atlantic littoral rock

Habitat Description:
This habitat type is found in the mid- to upper eulittoral on shores that are moderately or very exposed to wave action. It is characterised by bedrock and boulders dominated by the mussel Mytilus edulis, barnacles Chthamalus spp. and/or Semibalanus balanoides and limpets Patella spp. There is much regional variation in the species and zonation of the barnacles. Amongst the mussels small red algae including Ceramium shuttleworthianum, Corallina officinalis, Mastocarpus stellatus and Aglaothamnion spp. can be found. Two red algae in particular, Porphyra umbilicalis and Palmaria palmata, are commonly found on the Mytilus itself and can form luxuriant growths.The abundance of the red algae generally increases down the shore and in the lower eulittoral they may form a distinct zone in which mussels or barnacles are scarce. The lichen Lichina pygmaea may be prominent, especially in the south, where it can form distinct patches or even a separate zone among the Chthamalus spp.
With decreasing wave exposure F. vesiculosus is able to survive, gradually replacing the barnacles and P. vulgata biotope. On such moderately exposed shores this habitat may occur on steep and vertical faces, while fucoids dominate the flatter areas. In areas of soft rock (e.g. shales), the barnacles may be scarce or absent and the rock dominated by P. vulgata.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change overtime.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis. Indicators which have been developed for the assessment of ecological quality of coastal water bodies for the Water Framework Directive (WFD) that are relevant to this habitat include a consideration of macroalgae species richness, proportions of different taxa of algae present , and the abundace and coverage of the rocky surfaces by typical species. 
Characteristic species: 
Some shores are characterised by dense bands of the barnacle Semibalanus balanoides and the limpet Patella vulgata. The barnacles may be covered by Porphyra umbilicalis on the upper shore of exposed sites. Cracks and crevices in the rock provide a refuge for small individuals of the mussel M. edulis, winkles Littorina saxatilis and the whelk Nucella lapillus. Red seaweeds also frequently occupy damp crevices, particularly Ceramium shuttleworthianum, Corallina officinalis, Osmundea pinnatifida and encrusting coralline algae, but the non-vesiculate form of the wrack Fucus vesiculosus might be present. Large numbers of the winkle Littorina littorea often dominate fields of large boulders or shores with a more mixed substratum.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405)
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic littoral rock’ (A1.1)
 
Annex 1:
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
 
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is very typical of exposed rocky shores in the North East Atlantic region.

Map Description:
There are insufficient data to provide a comprehensive and accurate map of the distribution of this habitat. This map has been generated using EMODnet data from modelled/surveyed records for the North East Atlantic (and supplemented with expert opinion where applicable) (EMODnet 2010). EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this is not the full distribution of the habitat .

Comment EU28:
EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data. Although this data set is known to be incomplete the figures exceed the thresholds for threatened status.

Comment EU28+:
EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data. Although this data set is known to be incomplete the figures exceed the thresholds for threatened status.

Trends in Quantity:
The extent of wave-exposed littoral rock is unlikely to have changed significantly (>25%) in extent over the last 50 years however change is a key feature of the associated communities. Even when considered stable, the abundance of the barnacle/mussel component can fluctuate significantly within seasons and inter-annually, as well as spatially. Severe winters and extreme events such as El Nino result in the most rapid changes. There have been localised losses/damage to this habitat e.g. following oil spills, as well as recovery. This pattern is likely to continue.

Trends in Quality:
Change is a key feature of this habitat and even when considered stable, the abundance of the barnacle/mussel component can fluctuate significantly within seasons and interannually, as well as spatially. Hindcasting indicates shifts in ecologically dominant species e.g. the southern limit of the barnacle S. balanoides has shifted around 300 km northwards since the 1870s. 
There have been localised reductions in quality of this habitat e.g. following oil spills, as well as recovery. This pattern is likely to continue.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat occurs in the EU 28+ (e.g. Norway, Isle of Man, Channel Islands). The percentage hosted by the EU 28 is likely to be between 85-90% but there is insufficient information to establish the exact figure.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region extending from the Canaries and Azores in the west to the Skagerrak coast of Sweden in the east.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region extending from the Canaries and Azores in the west to the Skagerrak coast of Sweden in the east.

Pressures and Threats:
This is a relatively robust habitat as it develops on wave exposed rocky shores although it is vulnerable to a number of pressures. The two which are mostly likely to have an impact are pollution incidents, such as oil spills, and climate change. In the latter case it has been suggested that climate change may not lead to a simple poleward shift in the distribution of intertidal organisms on rocky shores but could cause localised extinctions in a series of hot-spots due to the inability of species to spread to suitable habitats. 
Coastal development including coast protection works which can alter the degree of exposure, shore collection, trampling and chronic effects of chemical contamination, e.g. from Tributyl tin, are also potential pressures but likely to be less of an issue than for more sheltered rocky shores.

Conservation and Management:
There are limited opportunities and need for specific conservation and management measures directed at this habitat.
More general beneficial measures include pollution control and regulation, development control and contingency plans to be followed in the event of a major pollution incident, survey and monitoring programmes, raised public awareness of their ecological value and vulnerability, representation in marine protected areas and measures to reduce global warming and sea level rise.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
This is a very dynamic habitat. Generally, the effects of chronic impacts on this habitat are reversible provided the disturbance is stopped. Recovery from acute impacts is also possible but may take much longer depending on the scale of the impact. Some of the characteristic species (mussels and barnacles) are adept at colonising empty space. Recovery on bare rock can take place rapidly with succession on rocky shores occurring over relatively short time scales in the order of less than 5-10 years depending on the availability of larvae and successful spatfalls. Longer time scales may be needed for recovery for species with low dispersal rates and in certain situations, e.g. oil spills, especially if the rock surface remains contaminated. If limpet population structure and barnacle densities are used as criteria then 15 years may be a more realistic time scale for recovery following oil spills even on exposed rocky shores. Timescales for recovery following the severe winter of 1962-3, where some species and associated communities on rocky shores took almost 40 years to reoccupy their previous range limits indicates that recovery may take even longer.

Summary:
This habitat type is found in the mid- to upper eulittoral on shores that are moderately or very exposed to wave action. It is characterised by bedrock and boulders dominated by the mussel Mytilus edulis, barnacles Chthamalus spp. and/or Semibalanus balanoides and limpets Patella spp. There is much regional variation in the species and zonation of the barnacles.  The habitat with its associated communities is naturally resilient but also subject to considerable natural variability (for example following storm damage) making trends difficult to distinguish. Although relatively robust it is vulnerable to pollution incidents such as oil spills on a local level and, on a regional sea level to climate change.  It has been suggested that climate change may not lead to a simple poleward shift in the distribution of intertidal organisms on rocky shores but could cause localised extinctions in a series of hot-spots due to the inability of species to spread to suitable habitats. 
There are limited opportunities and need for specific conservation and management measures to be directed at this habitat. More general beneficial measures include pollution control and regulation, development control and contingency plans to be followed in the event of a major pollution incident, representation in marine protected areas and measures to reduce global warming and sea level rise.

References:
Burrows, M.T., Mieszkowska, N. & Hawkins, S.J. 2014. Marine Strategy Framework Directive Indicators for UK rocky Shores Part 1: Defining and validating the indicators JNCC Report, No. 522, SAMS/MBA/NOCS for JNCC, JNCC Peterborough.
Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N. et al. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 04.05 JNCC. [online] Peterborough: ISBN 1 861 07561 8. Availiable at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/04_05_introduction.pdf. (Accessed: 30/08/2014).
Durham Biodiversity Action Plan. Habitat Action Plan. Coastal and Marine. Availiable at: http://www.durhambiodiversity.org.uk/pdfs/habitats/Rockyshores.pdf. (Accessed: 18/08/2015).
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 01/08/2014).
Hill, S., Burrows, M.T. and Hawkins, S.J. 1998. Intertidal Reef Biotopes (volume VI). An overview of dynamic and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine SACs. Scottish Association for Marine Science (UK Marine SACs Project), p.84.
Mieszkowska, N., Kendall, M.A., Hawkins, S.J., Leaper, R., P. Williamson, P., Hardman-Mountford, N.J. and Southward, A.J. 2006. Changes in the range of some common rocky shore species in Britain – a response to climate change? Hydrobiologia 555: 241–251.
Mieszkowska, N., Hawkins, S.J., Burrows, M.T. and Kendall, M.A. 2007. Long-term changes in the geographic distribution and population structures of Osilinus lineatus (Gastropoda: Trochidae) in Britain and Ireland. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 87: 537–545.
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P., Gomes-Pereira, J. and Gonçalves, J. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Tyler-Walters, H. 2002. Mytilus edulis and barnacles on very exposed eulittoral rock. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme. Availiable at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1421. (Accessed: 11/08/2014).
Wethey, D.S. and Woodin, S. 2008. Ecological hindcasting of biogeographic responses to climate change in the European intertidal zone. Hydrobiologia 606: 139-151.
Wallenstein, F.M., Neto, A.I., Patarra, R.F. et al., 2013. Indices to monitor coastal ecological quality of rocky shores based on seaweed communities: a simplification for wide geographical use. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 13(1):15-25.

Criterion A Text:
The general distribution of this habitat is well known and its extent has been mapped in detail in some locations (e.g. some Marine Protected Areas). There are studies showing short and long term trends in some locations, for example following oil spills, but no overview of trends in quantity for the North East Atlantic. Expert opinion is that this habitat has declined by less than 25% and most likely been stable over the last 50 years. It has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criterion A for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region extending from the Canaries and Azores in the west to the Skagerrak coast of Sweden in the east. EOO >50,000 km2 and AOO >50. It is considered to have been stable over the last 50 years. The nature and size of threats to this habitat and the distribution data which are available suggest that known threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criterion B for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
Experts consider the quality of this habitat to have largely been stable over the last 50 years although cyclical and localised changes do occur. This habitat has been assessed as Least Concern under criteria C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available to estimate the probability of collapse of this habitat type.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region extending from the Canaries and Azores in the west to the Skagerrak coast of Sweden in the east. The precise extent is unknown but existing survey data indicate that the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution are exceeded. Expert opinion is that the quantity and quality of this habitat has most likely been stable over the last 50 years. Known threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group: Sanders, N., Dankers, N., Forde, J., Fürhaupter, K., Gubbay, S., Haroun, R., Otero-Ferrer, F., Saunders, G., and Tyler-Walters, H.


Habitat Type Name:
A1.44 Communities of Atlantic littoral caves and overhangs

Habitat Description:
Where caves and overhangs occur on rocky shores, the shaded nature of the habitat diminishes the amount of desiccation suffered by biota during periods of low tides, allowing certain species to proliferate. In addition, the amount of scour, wave surge, sea spray and penetrating light determines the unique community assemblages found in upper-, mid- and lower-shore caves and overhangs.
Intertidal cave systems may be a few meters long or may extend considerable distances inland, while supporting fully marine biological communities. The flooded lava tube of Cueva de los Verdes – Jameos del on Lanzarote, in the Canary Islands penetrates some 2 km into the island. Biotopes from the surrounding shore or any of the fucoid communities occasionally extend into cave entrances and sometimes some distance beyond. Other open shore biotopes may also be found within caves, such as the that characterised by the green seaweed Prasiola stipitata on cave roofs favoured by roosting  birds, and localised patches of green algae where freshwater seepage influences the rock. Rockpools containing encrusting coralline algae, fucoids and kelp and hydroids and littorinid molluscs may occur also on the floor of cave entrances.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
In general, the biomass and diversity of algal species found in upper and mid-shore littoral caves decreases with increasing distance into the cave interior as the light levels diminish. Fucoids are usually only found at the entrances to caves, but red algae, and filamentous and encrusting green algae are able to penetrate to lower light intensities towards the back of the cave, and mats of the turf forming red seaweed Audouinella purpurea and/or patches of the green seaweed Cladophora rupestris may occur on the upper walls. Brownish velvety growths of the brown algae Pilinia maritima occurring in mats with the red alga A. purpurea on cave walls and upper littoral levels of cliffs  should not be confused with the green  or golden brown algal stains often found above this zone on the ceilings of the caves. On the lower walls is a zone of Verrucaria mucosa and/or Hildenbrandia rubra on the inner and outer reaches. Fauna usually only occur on the lower and mid walls of the caves and generally comprise barnacles, anemones and tube-forming polychaetes depending on the level of boulder scour or wave surge. Where the floors of caves consist of mobile cobbles and small boulders, few floral or faunal species occur due to the effects of scouring. Vertical or steeply sloping cave walls and overhangs on the mid- and lower-shore, subject to wave-surge but without scour, support a rich biota of sponges, hydroids, ascidians and shade-tolerant red algae.
In extensive cave systems such as the flooded lava tubes in the Canary Islands, the extent of saltwater intrusion, its stratification and the residence time of seawater (which can be from months to years) has resulted in a specialised fauna with pronounced morphological, physiological, biochemical and behavioural adaptations, such as the blind crab Munidopsis polymorpha.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405)
Level 4 of the EUNIS classification. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic littoral rock’ (A1.4).
 
Annex 1:
8830 Submerged or partially submerged sea caves
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal.
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
 
IUCN ecosystem:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is present in all the sub-basins of the North East Atlantic where there are cliffed coastlines although the character of the habitat can be very different, depending on geology and development process (e.g. marine erosion or collapsed lava tubes).

Map Description:
There are  insufficient data to provide a comprehensive and accurate map of the distribution of this habitat. This map has been generated using EMODnet data from modelled/surveyed records for the North East Atlantic (and supplemented with expert opinion where applicable) (EMODnet 2010). EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this is not the full distribution of the habitat.

Trends in Quantity:
Natural change in the extent of this habitat is inevitable with both increases and decreases occurring, for example with wave erosion extending caves or conversely causing rock collapse and subsequent loss. There are some inventories of caves in the region, but a lack of comprehensive data on the numbers and extent. Monitoring of cave habitats within Natura 2000 sites will provide data for future analysis however at the present time, current expert opinion is that  there are no particular  trends in quantity of this habitat.

Trends in Quality:
There are some long-term monitoring programmes in intertidal caves (e.g. within Marine Protected Areas) and, more recently, site condition monitoring programmes to detect trends because this habitat is listed in Annex 1 of the Habitats Directive. One such programme has compared cave biotopes at Papa Stour, Scotland between 1988 and 2003 showing that most of the surge gully biotopes and some of the scoured substrata biotopes were maintained across the time period.
The lack of adequate data (either current or historical) precludes certainty but current expert opinion is that there are no particular  trends in quality of this habitat.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat develops on cliffed coastlines. It is not present in all EU Member States of the North East Atlantic (e.g. it is absent from Germany and the Netherlands), but it is present in the EU 28+ (e.g. in Norway, Isle of Man, Channel Islands). The percentage hosted by the EU 28 is therefore less than 100% but there is insufficient information to establish the proportion.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region with examples as widely separated as the Canary Islands and the Shetland Islands.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region with examples as widely separated as the Canary Islands and the Shetland Islands.

Pressures and Threats:
Anthropogenic pressures potentially leading to changes in the extent of this habitat are those resulting from coastal developments and construction works because they may change the hydrodynamic regime and consequently the rates of erosion which both create and lead to loss of cave habitat (e.g. the western part of the island of Helgoland).
Harvesting of shellfish and disturbance of wildlife sheltering in caves are more localised pressures and likely to be limited to readily accessible sites. Severe pollution events such as oil spills are an additional pressure that may affect habitat quality.

Conservation and Management:
Intertidal cave habitats are present within some coastal and marine protected areas. Conservation and management measures include codes of conduct on access (e.g. to avoid disturbance to seals), regulation of coast protection works and coastal development. Oil spill contingency plans may specify actions to be taken in the event of intertidal cave habitats being affected.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
This is a naturally dynamic habitat with associated communities able to recover relatively rapidly if the cave structure remains present.

Summary:
Intertidal cave habitats support a variety of biotopes depending on light levels, amount of scour, wave surge and sea spray. A natural cycle of erosion means that change in extent of this habitat is inevitable with both new caves forming and extending, as well as cave habitats being lost, for example following rock collapse. Some inventories of cave habitats have been carried out in the region but there is lack of comprehensive data on numbers and area of extent.
Anthropogenic pressures potentially leading to loss of habitat are those produced by coastal developments and construction work. Water quality issues will obviously have wider consequences and impacts will not be restricted to cave habitats so will also be apparent on the open coast. Climate change may have an effect as increased storminess could exacerbate erosion at the coast. This could both lead to reduction in caves as well as the formation of new caves. Localised disturbance e.g. where seals use caves as pupping or haul out sites may also be an issue.
Protected areas with codes of conduct regarding access (e.g. to avoid disturbance to seals), regulation of coast protection works and coastal development are some of the conservation management measures applicable to this habitat.

References:
ERT (Scotland) Ltd. 2005. Site Condition Monitoring: surveys of marine rocky environments in the Papa Stour cSAC July-August 2003. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No.102 (ROAME No. F02AA409b).
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed:13/08/2015).
Irving, R.A. 2005. Lundy cSAC and MNR Literature Review. Devon: A report to English Nature(Exeter) by Sea- Scope, Marine environmental Consultants. 
Tempera, F. Atchoi, E., Amorim, P., Gomes-Pereira, J. and Gonçalves, J. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification.  Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Wilkens, H., Parzefall, J. and Iliffe, T.M. 1986. Origin and age of the marine Stygofauna of Lanzarote, Canary Islands. Mitteilungen aus dem Hamburgischen Zoologischen Museum und Institut 83: 223-230.

Criterion A Text:
Natural change in the extent of this habitat is inevitable with both increases and decreases occurring, Current expert opinion is that there are no particular trends in quantity of this habitat. It is therefore considered to be Least Concern under criterion A  for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region.  EOO >50,000 km2  and AOO >50, and it is not limited to a few locations. The precise extent of this habitat is unknown but it is considered most likely to have been stable over the last 50 years. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1, B2 & B3.

Criterion C/D Text:
There is limited data on quality and although changes will have taken place, no significant trends have been detected. Experts consider there to be insufficient data on which to assess criteria C/D.

Synthesis:
The presence of this habitat type in the North East Atlantic is well known. It is widespread and present in many locations. Although the geographical areas in which it occurs are known in general terms (cliffed coastlines) there is a lack of quantitative data on extent and quality. Threats and pressures on this habitat have been identified but the extent is considered to have been mostly stable over the last 50 years, with no substantial reduction in quality. The potential for future change due to changes in erosive processes, for example as a result of increased storminess associated with climate change is unknown.
The current Red List assessment is that this habitat qualifies as Least Concern in the EU 28 and EU 28+. This is because although changes will have taken place no significant trends in extent have been identified. The habitat also does not have a narrow geographical range and its distribution is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Where coastal rocks are formed from limestone there is potential for a connection between terrestrial karstic aquifers and the marine environment. The intertidal areas of these caves may support a specific specialised biota and would therefor

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group: N. Sanders, N. Dankers, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter ,  S. Gubbay, R. Haroun Tabraue, F. Otero-Ferrer, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, D. Harries.


Habitat Type Name:
B1.6b Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal dune scrub

Habitat Description:
Scrub and thicket on stabilized or semi-stabilized dune systems of the Mediterranean, thermo-Atlantic (southern Portugal) and Black Sea coasts. The dominant shrubs and herbaceous species are diverse and may vary from site to site. These scrub and thickets often constitute the transition between grey dunes and coastal woodlands. In the Mediterranean region the most widespread coastal scrub and thickets are dominated by Juniper species: Juniperus phoenicea and Juniperus oxycedrus (subsp. macrocarpa, subsp. transtagana). In the warmest areas of the thermo-Mediterranean climate, various sclerophyllous, lauriphyllous or drought-deciduous scrub and thickets are found, from the classes Ononido-Rosmarinetea, Quercetea ilicis, Cisto-Lavanduletea, Retametea raetami, Cisto-Micromerietea. These communities dominated by shrubs and thickets and vegetation cover could be very close but in some cases it could be also relatively open. On open spots, many herbaceous species from the surrounding dune grasslands are common between the shrubs. Along the Black Sea coast several deciduous shrubs may dominate, such as Paliurus spina-christii, Osyris alba and Carpinus orientalis, but also some small evergreen species, such as Ruscus aculeatus and Jasminum fruticans may participate in the scrub or form very large stands on the dunes. Dunes with communities of Hippophae rhamnoides, which are typical for north-western Europe, are restricted to northern Italy in the Mediterranean and to the Danube Delta in the Black Sea region. Some anciently cultivated plants, like Ziziphus jujuba, represent semi-natural shrub plantations in the dunes of the Southern Black Sea coast. Invasive species, like Eucalyptus sp., Amorpha fruticosa, Eleagnos angustifolia may expand with important impacts on native vegetation.
Indicators of good quality:
In good conditions these scrubs and thickets are dominated by native species. They could be subjected to the natural succession (expanding of forest vegetation), often related to stabilization of the dune systems.
The following characteristics may be considered as indicators of good quality:
High species richness and prevalence of native shrubs and herbaceous species
Absence of communities dominated by invasive species
Absence of forest plantations and forest expansion
Long-term stability of the relative proportions of scrub and grasslands in the mosaics of the dune landscape

Characteristic species:
Flora: Anthyllis hermaniae, Artemisia campestris, Asparagus acutifolius, Asparagus aphyllus, Bupleurum semicompositum, Calamagrostis epigejos, Carpinus orientalis, Catapodium rigidum, Centaurea pumilio, Cistus creticus, Cistus laurifolius, Cistus salviifolius, Clematis flammula, Corema album, Coridothymus capitatus, Dactylis glomerata, Daphne sericea, Erica manipuliflora, Erica multiflora, Erodium laciniatum, Ephedra fragilis, Jasminum fruticans, Juniperus phoenicea subsp. turbinata, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. macrocarpa, Juniperus navicularis, Hipophae rhamnoides subsp. caucasica, Halimium halimifolium, Helichrysum conglobatum, Helichrysum italicum, Helichrysum stoechas, Ephedra campylopoda, Ephedra distachya, Lagurus ovatus, Lonicera implexa, Limonium graecum, Limonium hyssopifolium, Limonium ocymifolium, Limonium echioides, Lycium schweinfurthii, Melica minuta, Myrtus communis, Osyris alba, Paliurus spina-christii, Periploca graeca, Pistacia lentiscus, Phagnalon graecum, Phillyrea angustifolia, Prasium majus, Pseudorlaya pumila, Quercus coccifera, Rhamnus alaternus, Rhamnus lycioides ssp. oleoides, Reichardia picroides, Rubia peregrina, Rubia tenuifolia, Ruscus aculeatus, Silene colorata, Smilax aspera, Teucrium fruticans, Teucrium capitatum, Trachynia distachya, Tuberaria guttata, Valantia hispida, Vulpia fasciculata.

Classification:
EUNIS:
B1.6 Coastal dune scrub
EuroVegChecklist:
Helichrysion picardii (Rivas-Mart., Costa et Izco in Rivas-Mart. et al. 1990) Rivas-Mart., Fernández-González et Loidi 1999
Sileno thymifoliae-Jurineion kilaeae Géhu et Uslu ex Mucina in Mucina et al. 2012
Cynodonto-Teucrion polii Korzhenevsky et Klyukin 1990
Oleo-Ceratonion siliquae Br.-Bl. ex Guinochet et Drouineau 1944
Juniperion turbinatae Rivas-Mart. 1975 corr. 1987
Quercion fruticosae Rothmaler 1954
Rubo longifoliae-Coremation albi Rivas-Mart. in Rivas-Mart. et al. 1980
Rhamno graeci-Juniperion lyciae Costa et al. 1984
Coremation albi Rothmaler 1943
Cistion laurifolii Rivas Goday in Rivas Goday et al. 1956
Teucrion mari (Gamisans et Muracciole 1984) Biondi et Mossa 1992
Carpinion orientalis Horvat 1958
Annex I:
2160 Dunes with Hippophae rhamnoides (marginal, only in Danube Delta)
2250 Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp
2260 Cisto-Lavenduletalia dune sclerophyllous scrubs
Emerald:
B1.6 Coastal dune scrub
MAES-2:
Coastal
IUCN:
3.8. Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation
13.3. Coastal Sand Dunes

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Some outstanding examples of typical characteristics of the Mediterranean biogeographic region could be highlighted such as Montalto di Castro in the Lazio Region (Italy), the Sardinian island in Italy and the Tróia Peninsula in Portugal. As far as the Black Sea is concerned, Kamchia Sands and Ropotamo in Bulgaria could be mentioned.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, with maybe some gaps in Albania and Croatia. Data sources: Art17, EVA.

Trends in Quantity:
The average past trend in quantity (over the past 50 years) is a decline of 15.6%. The largest reduction in extent affected France, Greece, Italy and Portugal (from 15 to 50%). The habitat has been subjected to intense human pressure: urbanization, land clearing for agriculture and woody plantations, but also intense trampling, fires, transit of off-road vehicles and exotic species invasion. Since 50-250 years ago about 54% of the potential area has been lost in Italy and Spain. Historical trends have not been indicated for other countries. This negative trend is expected to continue in the near future with a predicted average decrease of 10.1%.
The recent, future and historical trends have been calculated on the basis of the available territorial data (km2). These data are referred to different years, but we assume that the habitat area is the same in the year of reference as in the year where the data was provided.

Trends in Quality:
The damage in quality affect important areas especially in Bulgaria and Portugal. In other countries the degraded area is lower, but the severity of degradation is even so moderate-severe. The average degraded area in the last 50 years is about 18% with a severity of about 43%, as has been calculated from territorial data in a 1-5 scale (from stable-slight to severe).The trends in quality have been calculated on the basis of the available territorial data (km2). These data are referred to different years, but we assume that the habitat area is the same in the year of reference as in the year where the data was provided.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
About 70% of the habitat type is within the EU28. Outside the EU28 the habitat occurs in the eastern and southern Mediterranean coasts as well (a.o. Northern Africa).

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
Both EOO and AOO are above the thresholds.

Pressures and Threats:
The habitat is threatened in both the Mediterranean and the Black Sea biogeographic regions. In the last 50 years the composition and structure of this typical coastal dune habitat have been modified with a moderate reduction in extent and quality of the habitat. However, note that the historical decline of the habitat is more than 50%. In particular, the habitat has been subjected to intense human pressure: urbanization, land clearing for agriculture and woody plantations (e.i. Pinus and Eucalyptus afforestations), but also intense trampling, fires, transit of off-road vehicles and alien species invasion. In the Black Sea region the invasion of alien species is an important threat (Eucalyptus spp., Amorpha fruticosa, Robinia pseudacacia, Eleagnus angustifolia, Yucca gloriosa). Morevorer, coastal erosion with the increasing exposure to sea spray and modifying dune water dynamics also have a negative impact on this habitat.

Conservation and Management:
Legal protection of habitats and species is needed. In particular, a general legislation to prevent construction of new infrastructures and land clearing at expense of this habitat should be shared by all the EU countries. Moreover, establishing new protected areas/sites and restoring strongly degraded coastal areas are also important. In these cases, specific single species (Juniperus sp.) or species group (Juniperus spp.) management measures could be highlighted.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
2160: BLS U1
2250: CON U2, MED U2
2260: CON U2, MED U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
As the habitat is dominated by woody species such as Juniperus spp., special conservation measures are suggested. In particular, in heavily degraded areas planting Juniperus spp. using regionally collected plant material could be mentioned.

Summary:
This is scrub and thicket vegetation dominated by a diversity of low to tall shrubs and small trees found on stabilized or semi-stabilized dune sands along the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts and the Atlantic round to mid-Portugal. They form a part of the coastal vegetation zonation, mainly related to an environmental sea-inland gradient and are often found in mosaics with dune grassland and woodland, with a ground flora comprising elements of both. Major threats are urbanization, land clearance for agriculture and afforestation, but also intense trampling, fires, invasion of exotic species invasion and off-road vehicles. Restoration should involve planting of regionally appropriate shrubs.

References:
Acosta, A.T.R. and Ercole, S. (Eds.) 2015. Gli habitat delle coste sabbiose italiane: ecologia e problematiche di conservazione. ISPRA, Serie Rapporti, 215/2015.
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R., Zivkovic, L. 2009. Manuale Italiano di interpretazione degli habitat della Direttiva 92/43/CEE (Italian Interpretation Manual of the 92/43/EEC Directive Habitats). Available at: http://vnr.unipg.it/habitat/index.jsp.
EEA (European Environment Agency). 2009. Article 17 - Reporting under Habitats Directive. Available at: http://forum.eionet.europa.eu/x_habitat-art17report/library/datasheets/habitats/.
Gómez-Serrano, M.Á., Sanjaume, E. & Gracia Prieto, F.J. 2009. 2260 Dunas con vegetación esclerófila de Cisto-Lavanduletalia. Monografies nº 01. Ajuntament de València. 79 pp.
Muñoz, J.C. and Gracia, F.J., 2009. 2250 Dunas litorales con Juniperus spp. (*). In: VV.AAAA., Bases ecológicas preliminares para la conservación de los tipos de hábitat de interés comunitario en España. Madrid: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino. 61 pp.
Picchi, S. 2008. Management of Natura 2000 habitats. 2250 *Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp.European Commission. Technical report 2008 06/24
Prisco, I., Acosta, A.T.R. and Ercole, S. 2012. An overview of Italian coastal dune EU habitats. Annali di Botanica 2: 39-48.
Santos, A. 1983 Vegetación y flora de La Palma 348 pp. Ed. Interinsular Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

Criterion A Text:
The recent, future and historical trends have been calculated on the basis of the available territorial data (km2). These data are referred to different years, but it is assumed in this assessment that the habitat area is the same in the year of reference as in the year where the data was provided.The percentage of area declining in extent over the past 50 years (Criterion A1) is about 15.6%. The estimated future reduction in extent for the next 50 years (Criterion A2a) is about 10%. This habitat has suffered historically a much larger reduction in quantity due to human pressure, especially in Italy and Spain. The average historical reduction in quantity (since 0-250 years ago) was estimated of about 54.6% (Criterion A3). This value was based on data from only two countries (Spain, Italy), but it covered about 75% of the reported area. Thus, the habitat is assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion A3.

Criterion B Text:
Both the extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO) are above the thresholds. The subcriteria B1a/B2a are met because there is a continuing serious decline in biotic (ii) and abiotic (iii) quality. It is likely that a threatening event will cause continuing declines within the next 20 years. The number of locations is probably very large. Thus, this habitat is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The trends in quality have been calculated on the basis of the available territorial data. These data are referred to different years, but it is assumed in this assessment that the habitat area is the same in the year of reference as in the year where the data was provided. There is only data available for Criterion C/D1. Based on the territorial data provided, the reduction in quality over the last 50 years affected about 19% of the current area, with a relative severity of degradation of 43%. The reduction was in both biotic and abiotic quality. Thus, this habitat is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type. Thus, this habitat is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
The habitat type is assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion A3 both at the EU28 and the EU28+ levels, as the habitat has experienced a substantial historic reduction (since ca. 1750) of 55%.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No sub-habitats have been distinguished for further analysis.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: Tzonev, R.
Territorial data: Argagnon, O., Capelo, J., Dimopoulos, P., Espírito-Santo, D., Fagaras, M., Loidi, J., Prisco, I., Škvorc, Å½.. Tzonev, R.
Working Group Coastal: Acosta, A., Bioret, F., Gardfjell, H., Janssen, J., Loidi, J., Tzonev, R.


Habitat Description:
This habitat type consists of coastal dunes of the Canarian archipelago, colonized by herbaceous and woody plants often with succulent leaves and stems. It is absent in the islands of El Hierro and La Palma. Shifting dunes are populated by herbaceous plant communities of the alliance Polycarpeo niveae-Euphorbion paraliae and the fixed grey dunes are covered by the perennial woody communities of the Traganion moquinii. In both cases vegetation cover is sparse, and the climate is Mediterranean arid or desert-like.
Indicators of good quality:
No disturbance signals
Low vegetation cover
Absence of invasive alien species

Characteristic species:
Flora: Androcymbium psammophilum, Lotus lancerottensis, Polycarpaea nivea, Polygonum balansae var. tectifolium, Pulicaria burchardii, Senecio leucanthemifolius var. falcifolius, Traganum moquinii, Zygophyllum fontanesii, Zygophyllum gaetulum. Other taxa of broad distribution: Cyperus kalli, Euphorbia paralias, Polygonum mariitimum.

Classification:
EUNIS:
B1.3 Shifting coastal dunes
EuroVegChecklist:
Traganion moquinii Sunding 1972
Polycarpaeo niveae-Euphorbion paraliae Rivas-Martínez et Wildpret in Rivas-Mart. et al. 2002
Annex I:
2130* Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (grey dunes)
Emerald:
B1.3 Shifting coastal dunes 
B1.4 Coastal stable dune grassland (grey dunes)
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
13.3 Coastal sand dunes

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat type is present only in the Canary Islands within the EU 28 and EU 28+. It also occurs in the coasts of southern Morocco and the Cabo Verde archipelago.

Map Description:
The map is complete. Data sources: Art17.

Trends in Quantity:
This habitat is affected by pressure for human use as recreational areas, like all the coastal dunes systems in Spain are. The habitat is affected by pressures derived from construction (housing, roads, parking lots, temporary buildings) and direct human use, including trampling, litter, invasion by exotic species and transformation into arable land. The combination of these pressures has been so intense that it is now difficult to find sites with a relatively good state of naturalness, having experienced a severe decline of 50% of its distribution. It is also estimated that the habitat will continue declining in the future if the construction of touristic developments is not stopped.

Trends in Quality:
Quality degradation due to human influence of visitors (trampling), infrastructure development and invasion of invasive alien species have lead to a decline in the quality of the habitat type.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Around 40% of this habitat type lies within the EU 28, and it is particularly concentrated in the islands of Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, where extensive dune systems exist. The other islands in which it is found are La Gomera, Tenerife and Gran Canaria. Outside of the European Union, it is reported from southern Morocco and it expands along the western Sahara and the Cabo Verde islands.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
It is reported to have suffered severe regression in quantity. Ongoing development of touristic resorts in the Canary Islands leads to an unstoppable decline of this habitat type.

Justification of Restricted Area:
Macaronesian arid dunes system with Traganion moquinii and Polycarpeo niveae-Euphorbion paraliae are naturally restricted to some islands in the Canary Islands, in Cabo Verde and southern Morocco.

Pressures and Threats:
The use of this habitat as recreational areas by human is affecting this habitat type, like it affects all the coastal dunes systems in the Canary Islands, and particularly the islands of Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. This human use of the habitat as recreational areas leads to subsequent trampling and waste, and it is also affected by pressures derived from building of infrastructures, including housing, roads, parking lots, temporary buildings and invasion by invasive alien species.

Conservation and Management:
Conservation of fragile sand dune ecosystems in areas under heavy human pressure due to touristic activity needs to be implemented through the restriction of access to areas in a way that the dune dynamic system maintains its functionalities. Additionally, restriction to the building of houses and roads which interrupt the sand wind-blown flux from the outer beach areas to inland is essential for this purpose. A general monitoring scheme to control invasion by alien species is also needed.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Recovery after destruction is slow in arid environments. Artificial restoration is not reliable at the moment, since it is unlikely to obtain seeds or seedlings of Traganum mocquinii, the adequate plant to perform a sound ecologic restoration. Restoration processes will not be successful if the appropriate biological material provided by local species is not used.

Summary:
This habitat comprises scrubby vegetation with a sparse cover of woody succulent plants and associated herbs on stabilised coastal dunes of parts of the Canarian archipelago where there is an arid Mediterranean or desert-like climate. It is seriously threatened by recreational activity, infrastructure development and invasion by alien species, a combination intense at some localities. Survival needs strict protection, denial of access and limitation of development.

References:
Del Arco, M. (Ed.) 2006. Mapa de vegetación de Canarias. Mapas y memoria general. Grafcan Eds.
Rivas-Martínez, S., Widpret, W., Del Arco, M., Rodríguez, O., Pérez de Paz, P.L., García-Gallo, A., Acebes, J.R., Díaz, T.E. and Fernández-González, F. 1993. Las comunidades vegetales de la isla de Tenerife (Islas Canarias). Itinera Geobotanica 7: 169-374.

Criterion A Text:
This habitat has experienced a decline of around 50% in the last 50 years, the same percentage of decline which has occurred since 1750 since touristic development in the Canary Island is relatively recent and it is reasonable to assume that prior to the 1960s there was little decrease in coastal habitats. In addition, a further decline of 30% is expected to occur over the next 30 years. Therefore, the habitat is assessed as Endangered under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a restricted extent of ocurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) in the Canary Islands, and there is a continuing decline in spatial extent, abiotic and biotic quality. Additionally, building of infrastructure in the Canary Islands is likely to cause continuing declines within the next 20 years. Therefore, this habitat type is assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
According to the information provided by regional experts, it has been calculated that this habitat type has experienced a decline in quality that has affected 50% of its extent with a 80% relative severity as a result of human influence, and it is thus assessed as Endangered under Criterion C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type, but it can reasonably be expected that at a medium term this habitat can be practically collapsed. It is thus assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
This habitat has experienced a reduction in quantity of 50% over the past 50 years. Additionally, it has also experienced a reduction in quality with a severity of 80% which has affected 50% of the extent. It is therefore assessed as Endangered under Criterion A1 and C/D1.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat is relatively homogeneous within its area of occurrence, and thus no sub-habitat types require further examination.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Loidi
Territorial Data: M. Del Arco, J. Campos, O. Rodríguez
Working Group Coastal: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, H. Gardfjell, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
B1.7a Atlantic and Baltic broad-leaved coastal dune woodland

Habitat Description:
This is a very broadly defined habitat of Atlantic coastal dunes, comprising a diversity of relatively open to closed woodlands which develop where more stable coastal sands are invaded by broadleaved trees typical of the local soils and climatic conditions. It includes forests in dry and wet conditions, on calcareous and acidic sands and in the climatic gradient from southern Norway and the Baltics towards central Portugal. Many of these forests are indistinguishable in their floristic composition from inland examples of the same general type.
A first division can be made between forests of dry and moist soils. In moist dune slacks in the whole range of the habitat these forests are rather similar, with Betula pendula as one of the most important tree species, accompanied by Populus tremula. The understory consists of a combination of dune shrubs and common dune slack species, like Mentha aquatica, Phragmites australis, Valeriana officinalis, Cirsium palustre, Eupatorium cannabinum and Calamagrostis epigejos (alliance Ligustro vulgaris-Betulion pubescentis, sometimes considered as part of the Alnion incanae). In wetter conditions Alnus glutinosa or Betula pubescens may become dominant (Alnion glutinosae, Betulion pubescentis), with helophytic species like Thelypteris palustris and Lycopus europaeus. In some sites Sphagnum species dominate the moss layer. Rarely Salix alba will colonise wet dune slacks, forming woodlands.
The dry forests are more diverse, with Quercus robur as the dominant species in the Northwest-Atlantic and Baltic, and more thermophilous Quercus species (Q. ilex, Q. rotundifolia, Q. suber) in the warmer parts of the Atlantic coast, south of Loire estuary. In general these forests have a similar species combination to more inland forests on sandy soils, although some typical dune species like Carex arenaria and Calamagrostis epigejos will occur more frequently. The Quercus forests from the acidic dune sands in the northern and Baltic part of the range (alliance Quercion roboris) are often relatively species poor, with a heathy aspect beneath the trees, Calluna vulgaris, Empetrum nigrum, Festuca ovina, Carex arenaria, Lonicera periclymenum, Polypodium vulgare and other common species in the herb layer, and in many cases a high cover of bryophytes (Pleurozium schreberi, Hypnum spp., Dicranum scoparium, Polytrichum spp.) and lichens (Cladonia spp.). On slightly richer, more mature soils, Fagus sylvaticus may be dominant, or a combination of Quercus robur, Ulmus minor, Acer pseudoplatanus and Fraxinus excelsior (classified under Alnion incanae). The field layer may contain a set of geophytes, like Scilla non-scripta and Galanthus nivalis. Most different from inland types are the Quercus robur forests on calcareous dune sands, widespread in the central part of the Dutch dunes, but elsewhere rare. These, in many cases relatively young forests, contain a lot of shrubs, like Crataegus monogyna, Rosa spp., Berberis vulgaris, Euonymus europaeus, Ligustrum vulgare, Hippophae rhamnoides and Rhamnus cathartica. The herb layer differs, depending on the exposition of the dunes, but often includes a combination of species preferring dry, sandy soils and species of more humus- rich soils, with mixtures such as Carex arenaria, Calamagrostis epigejos, Glechoma hederacea, Polygonatum odoratum, Convallaria majalis, Geranium robertianum and Galium aparine. Sometimes rare species are found in the woodland edges, like Scrophularia vernalis. In the southern part of the distribution range more Mediterranean species are found in the canopy, like Quercus ilex, Q. suber and Q. pyrenaica sometimes mixed with Pinus pinaster, and in the understorey Ruscus aculeatus, Cistus salviifolius, Arbutus unedo, Rubia peregrina, Ligustrum vulgare and Iris foetidissima.
Because the coastal dunes of Europe have been relatively intensively used by man for many centuries, and in other parts are very dynamic, in general dune forests are relatively young and in many places also rare. Other woodlands have been created by planting, often with pine species, like dune areas between the Loire estuary and Les Landes in (South)western France. In general dune woodlands are restricted to the more inland parts of the dunes, but in some places low trees grow seawards as far as the first dune ridge, being reduced to a bonsai structure by the salty wind. Old plantations with dominance of deciduous trees with a similar structure and species composition as natural forests may be considered under this habitat. Pine forests on dunes belong to B1.7d (Baltics) or B1.7e (Mediterranean), while lower, shrubby woodlands, for example dominated by Salix cinerea in dune slacks or Crataegus monogyna on dry dunes, and Sambucus nigra woodland, in most cases growing together with Hippophae rhamnoides, are considered part of habitat B1.6a.
Indicators of good quality
These are relatively young woodlands, which often still are in a certain stage of succession. Open structures contribute to the richness of the species diversity. 
• Variety of open woodlands (with many gradients towards shrub, heathland and grassland) and closed forests (with more typical species of shaded conditions)                   
• Dominance of broad-leaved species
• Absence of non-native or nitrophilous species
• Abundance of spring-flowering geophytes
• No or a low rate of disturbance by recreation
Characteristic species:
Tree canopy: Acer pseudoplatanus, Alnus glutinosa, Betula pendula, Betula pubescens, Fagus sylvatica, Quercus ilex, Q. petraea, Q. pyrenaica, Q. robur, Q. suber, Ulmus minor 
Understorey/Herb layer: Calamagrostis epigejos, Carex arenaria, Convallaria majalis Crataegus monogyna, Hedera helix, Ligustrum vulgare, Lonicera periclymenum, Polygonatum odoratum Ruscus aculeatus, Scilla non-scripta, Scrophularia vernalis, Teucrium scorodonia.

Classification:
EUNIS:
B1.7 Coastal dune Woods
EuroVeg Checklist:
Alnion glutinosae Malcuit 1929
Alnion incanae Pawlowski et al. 1928
Carpinion betuli Issler 1931
Ligustro vulgaris-Betulion pubescentis Géhu 2006
Quercion ilicis Br.-Bl. ex Molinier 1934
Quercion roboris Malcuit 1929
Annex 1:
2180 Wooded dunes of the Atlantic, Continental and Boreal region
Emerald:
B1.7 Coastal dune woods 
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate forests

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The type is mainly restricted to the Atlantic region with some occurrence on the Baltic coasts of the Boreal.

Map Description:
Map rather complete, but data gaps for Norway, Spain, UK; potential distribution in Baltic region. Data sources: ART17, BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
Average trend in area EU28 and EU28plus is -4.2%

Trends in Quality:
A wide variety of trends in quality have been reported, from no or marginal to 100% affected moderately. On average about half of the area has been negatively affected with slight severity.

Justification of Restricted Area:
No. In the countries with largest areas the stands are very large.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threats are intensive forestry, expansion of non-native species, urbanisation and expansion of infrastructure, disturbance by outdoor activities, natural fires (in Portugal) and (locally, for moist varieties of the type) changes of hydraulic conditions.

Conservation and Management:
No management may be necessary in order to realize older stages of forests. Removal of non-native species may be relevant in some cases. In other cases continuation of coppice management or restoration of hydrological systems may be needed for conservation of species diversity.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1-type:
2180: ATL U1, BOR U2, CON U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
This is a forest type, which needs relatively long time for complete restoration. The type itself may be realized within 20 years, but for a good quality with structural variation a longer time period is needed. As most Atlantic dune forests are relatively young in Europe, no exact indication of time-scale can be given (50 or 200 years).

Summary:
Atlantic and Baltic dune woodland is a very diverse habitat, including both dry and wet broadleaved forest types and, to the south of the range, some mixed woodland with evergreen oaks and some Mediterranean species, vegetation that is often indistinguishable from the local inland types but here occurring on dunes.  Such vegetation develops from open grasslands and scrub where sands have been stabilised and the influence of salty winds is negligible. The habitat is vulnerable to afforestation, urbanisation, recreation and infrastructure development but over a longer historical period may have increased with abandonment of pastoralism on dunes and continues stable or expanding.

References:
Bensettiti F., Bioret F., Géhu J.-M., Glémarec M. & Bellan-Santini D. 2004. Habitats côtiers. Cahiers d’habitats Natura 2000, 2, La Documentation française, 399p.
GéhuJ.-M. & Géhu-Franck J. 1984. Sur les forêts sclérophylles de chêne et de pin maritime des dunes atlantiques françaises. Documents Phytosociologiques NS VIII : 219-231.
Lawesson, J.E. & P. Wind 2002. Oak dune forests in Denmark and their ecology. Forest Ecology and Management 164: 1-14.

Criterion A Text:
Values for A1 have been calculated from territorial data sheets. Several countries report an increase of area over a longer historical time frame (A3), and also overall a slight increase is predicted for the near future (A2a). No quantitative data are available for A2a, A2b and A3.

Criterion B Text:
Figures for EOO and AOO are far above thresholds for B, and the number of locations is high. There are no continuing threats or processes that are likely to cause a decline in the next 20 years.

Criterion C/D Text:
Reported trends are in some countries biotic, in others abiotic or both, therefore no scores are reported for C1 or D1. No or little data are available on future trends (C/D2, C2, D2) or longer historical trends (C/D3, C3, D3).

Synthesis:
The overall analysis of data leads to the conclusion Least Concern for recent, historical and future changes in quantity and quality. Although the negative trends in quality are small, the values are close to the thresholds for Near Threatened.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat type is diverse, with dry and moist dune forests and different variaties in regions with a different climate. Southern varieties include evergreen oaks such as Quercus ilex, while northern dune forests consist entirely of broadleav

Contributors:
Habitat description: J. Janssen
Territorial data: P. Aarrestad, R-J. Bijlsma, J. Capelo, D. Espirito-Santo, P. Finck, A. Jacobson, T. Kontula, F. O Neill, S. Provoost, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, B. Renaux, I. Rove, I. Sell, A. Ssymank
Working Group Coastal: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, H. Gardfjell, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
A4.71 Communities of Mediterranean circalittoral caves and overhangs

Habitat Description:
Caves and overhangs constitute typical features of the Mediterranean circalittoral rocky bottoms. They support a great variety of species and host a considerable proportion of the total Mediterranean diversity of certain phyla, such as Brachiopoda, Bryozoa, and Porifera. Several protected and rare species, including recently described species, as well as deep-sea species have been reported. Most of our knowledge comes from caves in the north-west Mediterranean as cave biodiversity is extremely understudied in the southern and eastern basins. They are characterised by high morphological complexity, reflected in abiotic gradients and marked biological zonation along the longitudinal cave axis, from the entrance to the inner cave sectors. Light availability and water confinement are acknowledged as the main driving forces shaping this zonation. Thus, circalittoral caves support a variety of sciaphilic assemblages, usually distributed according to the following scheme: (i) a sciaphilic algae-dominated community at the entrance zone, (ii) a semi-dark zone where sessile filter-feeding invertebrates (mainly sponges and anthozoans) dominate, favored by the disappearance of macroalgae, and (iii) a dark zone which is sparsely colonized by sponges, serpulid polychaetes, bryozoans and brachiopods.
The shift from semi-dark to dark cave communities is evidenced through a sharp decrease in biotic coverage, biomass, three-dimensional biotic complexity, species richness, and the appearance of a black mineral coating of Mn-Fe oxides on the substrate. Additional zones, such as a transitional zone between semi-dark and dark cave communities and an azoic zone at the aphotic cave edge, have been occasionally identified. The limits of these zones might vary among caves with different morphology (e.g. inner zones tend to appear closer to the cave entrance in deeper waters), while in some caves some specific zones might be absent. Semi-dark caves are community is typically dominated by sponges, bryozoans, brachiopods and polychaete species. Serpulid polychaetes (e.g. Protula spp.) can form aggregations, which in some cases constitute the basis for the creation of biogenic structures; these ‘biostalactites’ are constructed by invertebrates (serpulids, sponges, and bryozoans), foraminiferans and carbonate-forming microorganisms. A number of deep-sea species belonging to various taxonomic groups (e.g. sponges, anthozoans and bryozoans) have also been recorded in sublittoral dark caves, regardless of depth
Indicators of quality:
Marine caves are characterised by high levels of individuality and heterogeneity which, coupled to the poor understanding of the ecosystem functioning, make it difficult the assessment of their ecologic quality. However, a number of indicators of quality have been recently suggested for the marine cave ecosystem, such as:
- Presence of invertebrates offering three-dimensional complexity to the substrate, and particularly fragile slow-growing species (e.g. red coral, erect bryozoans)
- High spatial coverage of suspension feeders (i.e. anthozoans) and large filter feeders (e.g. massive sponges)
- Presence of large mysid swarms
- Presence of various omnivorous and carnivorous mobile species (e.g. fish and decapods)
 
Characteristic species:
Communities of semi-dark caves and overhangs:
Sponges: Agelas oroides, Petrosia ficiformis, Spirastrella cunctatrix, Chondrosia reniformis, Phorbas tenacior, Axinella damicornis,  Aplysina cavernicola,  Oscarella spp. and Plakina spp. Anthozoans: (scleractinian species) Leptopsammia pruvoti, Madracis pharensis, Hoplangia durotrix, Polycyathus muellerae, Caryophyllia inornata and Astroides calycularis. Facies of Corallium rubrum and Parazoanthus axinellae. Bryozoans: e.g. Adeonella spp. and Reteporella spp.
Communities of dark caves:
Sponges: Petrosia ficiformis,, Petrobiona massiliana, Chondrosia reniformis, Diplastrella bistellata, Penares euastrum, P. helleri, Jaspis johnstoni, and Haliclona mucosa. Serpulid polychaetes, e.g. Protula spp. Encrusting bryozoans e.g.Onychocella marioni and brachiopods  Joania cordata, Argyrotheca cuneata, and Novocrania anomala. Other species include mysids Hemimysis margalefi and H. speluncola, the decapods Stenopus spinosus, Palinurus elephas, and Plesionika narval,  the boring bivalve Lithophaga lithophaga and fish species such as Apogon imberbis and Grammonus ater.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4: A sub-habitat of ‘Mediterranean circalittoral rock’ (A4.7)
 
Annex 1:
8330 Submerged or partially submerged sea caves
 
MAES:
Marine - Coastal 
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow photic rock or biogenic reef 
Shallow aphotic rock or biogenic reef 
 
IUCN:
9.2 Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs
 
Barcelona Convention:
V. 3. 2. Caves and ducts in total darkness (in enclave in the upper stages) 
IV.3. 2. Semi-dark caves (also in enclave in upper stages)

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The Mediterranean communities present in this habitat vary considerably depending on the biogeographical region, internal cave morphology, extent and abiotic features of the cave system. They also host a considerable proportion of the total Mediterranean diversity for certain phyla as well as several protected and endemic species.

Map Description:
This map has been generated using data based on Giakoumi S. et al. (2013) and V. Gerovasileiou.. EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this may not indicate the full distribution of the habitat.

Trends in Quantity:
The advances in technology in the last decades have allowed to start exploring marine caves in the Mediterranean. Most of the recent work has focused on the description of faunal assemblages and there seems to be no information on the trends in quantity of the habitat.

Trends in Quality:
Mediterranean marine caves had remained almost totally unexplored until the middle of the twentieth century. Earliest data regarding marine cave communities of the western Mediterranean were published in 1940-50. Changes in habitat quality have been recently evaluated only for a small number of caves in the western Mediterranean Sea, while there is no information from the Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea and the central Mediterranean Sea. A recent study in the shallow cave of Bergeggi in the Ligurian Sea (Italy), which was affected by two regional heat waves in 1999 and 2003, revealed a notable reduction of sessile invertebrates which offered three-dimensional complexity to the cave ecosystem (comparison of data collected in 1986 and 2009). Sessile invertebrates with erect growth forms have been also found to be more abundant and evenly distributed in protected caves of Sardinia (Italy), where no diving activities take place in comparison to caves which are frequently visited by SCUBA divers. The absence of data depicting the past ecological state of this habitat in the Aegean-Levantine Sea, where several non-indigenous species have been recorded in caves, makes it difficult to evaluate recent general changes of quality. However, it can be assumed that the habitat quality might have decreased.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The vast majority of recorded marine caves are located in the northern Mediterranean basin, with 2,543 caves (89% of the known Mediterranean caves) present within the EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is present along the whole Mediterranean basin and the EOO largely exceeds 50,000 km2. Therefore this habitat does not have a small natural range.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat has a large natural range in the Mediterranean extending from the Alboran Sea in the west to the Levantine Sea in the eastern basin.

Pressures and Threats:
Uncontrolled visitation by SCUBA divers, red coral harvesting, water temperature rise, presence of alien species and marine pollution constitute potential threats for the communities of sublittoral caves and overhangs. Mechanical damage to fragile and slow-growing invertebrates due to uncontrolled diving activities (evidenced by the elimination of erect bryozoans and the presence of broken individuals on the cave bed) is probably the most severe human-induced impact on these communities. Increasing water temperature as a result of climate change has also been proposed to cause replacement of the endemic crustacean Hemimysis speluncola with its thermotolerant congener H. margalefi, and invasive species are becoming a new threat to this habitat type mostly in the southeastern Mediterranean Sea. Coastal infrastructure and development, natural biotic and abiotic processes (e.g. erosion) and geological events (e.g. earthquakes) could also result in a decrease of habitat quantity and quality.

Conservation and Management:
Marine cave habitats are a protected feature under EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Semi-dark and dark cave communities have been included in two Action Plans by UNEP-MAP-RAC/SPA (2008 and 2015 respectively), adopted by Contracting Parties of the Barcelona Convention specifically aiming at their conservation. A recent evaluation has shown that around 56% of the Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) include marine caves although the precise number of marine caves within designated MPAs remains unknown.
The clear biogeographic patterns exhibited by the Mediterranean marine cave assemblages from different regions suggest the need for protecting marine caves (e.g. management of visitation and other activities) in different regions in order to safeguard representativeness of the habitat type at the Mediterranean scale. Finally, the notable presence of several alien species in southeastern Mediterranean caves (though mostly in semi-submerged and shallow semi-dark caves and tunnels) should be monitored.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Unknown. Marine caves structures undergo natural cycles through the process of erosion. The associated species are likely to show different restoration capabilities.

Summary:
Caves and overhangs constitute typical features of the Mediterranean sublittoral rocky bottoms. They are characterised by high morphological complexity, reflected in abiotic gradients and marked biological zonation along the longitudinal cave axis, from the entrance to the inner cave sectors. Light availability and water confinement are acknowledged as the main driving forces shaping this zonation.
Uncontrolled visitation by SCUBA divers, red coral harvesting, water temperature rise, presence of alien species and marine pollution constitute potential threats for the communities of sublittoral caves and overhangs. Increasing water temperature as a result of climate change has also been proposed to cause replacement of the endemic species. Conservation measures include regulation of damaging activities, including within Marine Protected Areas, and managing explotiation of the resources found in marine caves.

References:
Abdulla, A, Gomei, M, Maison, E. and Piante, C. 2008. Status of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean Sea. Malaga and France: IUCN and WWF. 152 p.
Bianchi, C. N. and Morri, C. 1994. Studio bionomico comparativo di alcune grotte marine sommerse: definizione di una scala di confinamento. Memorie dell’Istituto italiano di Speleologia, 6: 107-123.
Chevaldonné, P. and Lejeusne, C. 2003. Regional warming-induced species shift in north-west Mediterranean marine caves. Ecology Letters, 6: 371-379.
Di Franco, A, Milazzo, M, Baiata, P., Tomasello, A. and Chemello, R. 2009. Scuba diver behaviour and its effects on the biota of a Mediterranean marine protected area. Environmental Conservation, 36, 32-40.
Dounas, C., Koutsoubas, D., Salomidi, M., Koulouri, P., Gerovassileiou, V. and Sini, M. 2010. Distribution and fisheries of the red coral Corallium rubrum (Linnaeus, 1758) in the Greek Seas: an overview. In: Bussoletti, E., Cottingham, D., Bruckner, A., Roberts, G. and Sandulli, R. (Eds) Proceedings of the International Workshop on Red Coral Science, Management, and Trade: Lessons from the Mediterranean. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-13, Silver Spring, pp 106-114.
Gerovasileiou, V., Chintiroglou, C., Vafidis, D., Koutsoubas, D., Sini, M., Dailianis, T., Issaris, Y., Akritopoulou, E., Dimarchopoulou, D. and Voultsiadou, E. 2015a. Census of biodiversity in marine caves of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Mediterranean Marine Science, 16: 245-265.
Gerovasileiou, V. and Voultsiadou, E. 2012. Marine caves of the Mediterranean Sea: a sponge biodiversity reservoir within a biodiversity hotspot. PLoS ONE, 7: e39873. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039873
Gerovasileiou, V. and Voultsiadou, E. 2014. Mediterranean marine caves as biodiversity reservoirs: a preliminary overview. In: Langar H, Bouafif C, Ouerghi A (Eds) Proceedings of the first Mediterranean Symposium on the conservation of Dark Habitats. RAC/SPA, Tunis, pp 45-50.
Gerovasileiou, V. and Voultsiadou, E. 2015. Sponge community gradients in marine caves of the eastern Mediterranean. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK, doi: 10.1017/S0025315415000697.
Gerovasileiou, V., Voultsiadou, E., Issaris, Y. and Zenetos, A. 2016. Alien biodiversity in Mediterranean marine caves. Marine Ecology. 1-18. doi: 10.1111/maec.12268
Giakoumi, S, Sini, M., Gerovasileiou, V., Mazor, T., Beher, J., Possingham, H. P., Abdulla, A., Çinar, M. E., Dendrinos, P., Gucu, A. C., Karamanlidis, A. A., Rodic, P., Panayotidis, P., Taskin, E., Jaklin, A., Voultsiadou, E., Webster, Ch., Zenetos, A. and Katsanevakis, S. 2013. Ecoregion-based conservation planning in the Mediterranean: dealing with large-scale heterogeneity. PLoS ONE, 8: e76449. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076449
Guarnieri, G., Terlizzi, A., Bevilacqua, S. and Fraschetti, S. 2012. Increasing heterogeneity of sensitive assemblages as a consequence of human impact in submarine caves. Marine Biology, 159, 1155-1164.
Harmelin, J. G. 1985. Bryozoan dominated assemblages in Mediterranean cryptic environments. In: Nielsen, C. and Larwood, G.P. (Eds) Bryozoa: Ordovician to recent. Olsen & Olsen, Fredensborg, pp 135-143.
Harmelin, J. G., Vacelet, J. and Vasseur, P. 1985. Les grottes sous-marines obscures: un milieu extrême et un remarquable biotope refuge. Téthys, 11: 214-229.
Logan, A., Bianchi, C. N., Morri,C. and Zibrowius, H. 2004. The present-day Mediterranean brachiopod fauna diversity, life habits, biogeography and paleobiogeography. Scientia Marina, 68: 163-170.
Parravicini, V., Guidetti, P., Morri, C., Montefalcone, M., Donato, M. and Bianchi, C. N. 2010. Consequences of sea water temperature anomalies on a Mediterranean submarine cave ecosystem. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86 276-282
Pérès, J.M.1967. Mediterranean Benthos. Oceanography and Marine Biology - An Annual Review, 5: 449- 533.
Petricioli, D., Buzzacott, P., RadoloviÄ‡, M., Bakran-Petricioli, T. and Gerovasileiou, V. 2015. Visitation and conservation of marine caves Proceedings of the International Symposium “Inside and outside the Mountain”, 23-26 April 2015, Custonaci, Sicily, Italy.
Rastorgueff, P-A., Bellan-Santini, D., Bianchi, C.N., Bussotti, S., Chevaldonné, P., Guidetti, P., Harmelin, J-G., Montefalcone, M., Morri, C., Perez, T., Ruitton, S., Vacelet, J. and Personnic, S. 2015. An ecosystem-based approach to evaluate the ecological quality of Mediterranean undersea caves. Ecological Indicators 54:
137-152.
Riedl, R. 1966. Biologie der Meereshöhlen. Paul Parey, Hamburg, 636 p.
Ros, J., Romero, J., Ballesteros, E. and Gili, J. M. 1985. Diving in blue water: the benthos. In: Margalef, R. (Ed), Western Mediterranean, Pergamon, Oxford, pp 233-295.
Sanfilippo, R., Rosso, A., Guido, A., Mastandrea, A., Russo, F., Riding, R. and Taddei Ruggiero, E. 2014. Metazoan/microbial biostalactites from present-day submarine caves in the Mediterranean Sea, Marine Ecology. doi: 10.1111/maec.12229
Vacelet, J. 1959. Répartition générale des éponges et systématique des éponges cornées de la région de Marseille et de quelques stations méditerranéennes. Recueil des Travaux de la Stations Marine d'Endoume, 26: 39-101.
Vacelet, J., Boury-Esnault, N. and Harmelin, J.G. 1994. Hexactinellid cave, a unique deep-sea habitat in the scuba zone. Deep Sea Research Part I, 41: 965-973.
Zibrowius, H. 1978. Les Scleractiniaires des grottes sous-marines en Méditerranée et dans l’Atlantique nord-oriental (Portugal, Madère, Canaries, Açores). Pubblicazioni della Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, 40: 516-545.

Criterion A Text:
There is no information available on the historic, present or future reductions in quantity of marine caves in the Mediterranean, and only recent surveys have produced the first inventories per country and at the basin scale of this habitat type.This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat is widespread in the east and western Mediterranean, and the EOO and AOO values exceed the thresholds for a threatened category. A slight continuing decline in abiotic and biotic quality has been assumed, and there are threats that might cause the decrease in quality of this habitat type in the next 20 years (e.g. water temperature rise).   This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criterion B for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
It is difficult to assess trends in abiotic and/or biotic quality due to the lack of information available on the past conditions of marine cave habitats for most of the Mediterranean areas. However, marine cave habitats are considered poorly resilient ecosystems, vulnerable to the threats mentioned above, and therefore a slight decline in abiotic and biotic quality has been assumed over the past 50 years, and it is also expected to continue in the future, considering the 50-year period of 1986-2036; although the extent affected remains unknown. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criteria C/D1.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available to estimate the probability of collapse of this habitat type. Therefore, this habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient.

Synthesis:
Little information exists on the overall trends of this habitat. Localised studies have been conducted at different sites mostly in the western Mediterranean Sea, but the earliest data were only published in 1940-50. The lack of historic quantitative and qualitative data on its community structure from most Mediterranean areas constitutes a major impediment to the identification of potential quantity and quality decline of this habitat type through time. However, it can be assumed that the habitat quality might have decreased as a consequence of uncontrolled visitation by SCUBA divers, water temperature rise, marine pollution and habitat destruction. The habitat is known to be widespread throughout the Mediterranean Sea, with a large EOO and AOO, and therefore it qualifies as Least Concern under Criterion B for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.


Habitat Description:
This habitat comprises the coastal salt marshes from the Arctic Sea, in Europe found in estuaries and fjords along the north coast of Iceland, Norway and Russia, and besides on acrtic islands like Svalbard and Nova Zembla. Several salt-marsh species of the Atlantic coastal marshes do not reach this region, while other, typical arctic species are mainly restricted to it and only incidentally are found more southwards. The distinction between the Arctic region and the Northern Atlantic region is – of course – gradual, but for the salt marshes the presence of the alliances Puccinellion phryganodes (in lower salt-marsh belts) and Caricion glareosae (in higher belts) is a good indicator for the Arctic region. For the distinction between Atlantic and Arctic salt marshes we follow the boundaries and divisions given by Dijkema et al. (1984) for maritime plants (situated roughly between the 65 and 70°N latitudinal line). According to this definition the habitat type does not occur in the European Union, but within the EU28+ arctic salt marshes are found on the north-coast of Norway, the north-coast of Iceland, the Svalbard archipelago and Jan Mayen island. Besides the characteristic species of the mentioned alliances, Puccinellia phryganodes and Carex glareosa, other typical species of these arctic salt marshes are Potentilla anserina ssp. egedii, Stellaria humifusa, Gentianella detonsa, Carex salina, Carex ursina, Carex subspathacea and – in muddy places – the “Ice-Sea glasswort” Salicornia pojarkova. The habitat has several species in common with the Atlantic salt-marshes, like some species with a northern distribution in the Atlantic and Baltic (Puccinellia distans subsp. borealis, Carex mackenziei) and some widespread salt-marsh species like Triglochin maritima, Plantago maritima, Agrostis stolonifera and Festuca rubra, which this far north don’t become dominant.
Arctic coastal salt marshes are under pressure from coastal erosion, changes in sea ice, increased industriell activities ofshore as oil-drilling, and pollution.
Indicators of good quality:
Few open non-vegetated areas
Dominance of typical arctic species

No signs of erosion

No tracks of recreation or pollution.


Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Agrostis stolonifera, Carex glareosa, Carex mackenziei, Carex salina, Carex subspathacea, Carex ursina, Cochlearia officinalis, Festuca rubra, Gentianella detonsa, Juncus bufonius, Puccinellia distans subsp. borealis, Puccinellia phrygnoides, Plantago maritima, Triglochin maritima, Potentilla anserina subsp. egedii, Stellaria humifusa
Mosses: Bryum salinum, Drepanocladus uncinatus

Classification:
EUNIS:
A2.5 Coastal saltmarshes and saline reedbeds
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Puccinellion maritimae Christiansen 1927 (= Festucion maritimae)
Armerion maritimae Br.-Bl. et De Leeuw 1936
Puccinellion phryganodis Hadac 1946
Caricion glareosae Nordhagen 1954
Atriplicion littoralis Nordhagen 1940
Annex 1:
1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonising mud and sand (small part)
Emerald:
-
MAES-2:
Marine inlets and transitional waters
IUCN:
12.5.  Salt Marshes [Emergent Grasses]

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat occurs only outside the European Union and only in the Arctic biogeographical region

Map Description:
The map provides an underestimation of the distribution due to data gaps, although the range is well indicated. More sites are known in northern Iceland and northern Norway, and therefore the AOO is expected to be a bit higher than 50. On Svalbard several of the caracteristic species are rather common, an indication that the habitat occurs in several parts of western Svalbard, but within a small area. In general little information exists on shore habitats from Svalbard. Data sources EVA, GBIF.

Comment EU28+:
The area is manly based on expert judgement as very little data exist on this habitat

Trends in Quantity:
As far as is known the habitat is stable over time and no present pressures causing area decline are known from the arctic region in the EU28+. However, declines in area are expected as a result of sea level change due to climate change. The International Arctic Science Committee a.o. (2011) mentions in the State of the Arctic Coast 2010 that flooding of coastal zones is increasing in the arctic, leading to destruction or redistribution of existing salt marshes. They indicate that, because of the very low species diversity, the arctic salt marshes are expected to be extremely vulnerable to rapid changes, especially supratidal meadows, mud flats and marshes that are periodically inundated at high tides. While many salt marshes in temperate regions keep pace with slow sea-level rise through inorganic sedimentation and organic production, there are many observations of flooded tundra along Arctic coasts, where vertical accretion is clearly not keeping pace.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
0%. The habitat occurs only outside EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a large range, covering the complete arctic region, and no data on decline is known from the last 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is very rare in the part of Europe covered by the Red List, because the natural conditions to develop are very rare in the arctic region.

Pressures and Threats:
No past and present threats are known, but in future climate change will cause sea level rise, which is expected to lead to erosion of salt marshes. Another possible future threat are effects from off shore oil production, if such wil be astablished in the area.

Conservation and Management:
As the habitat is not under any actual threat, no conservation or managment are urgently needed, except that a representative number of sites should be protected as nature reserves. Further conservation measures to prevent erosion may be considered in areas with rising sea level.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
It is hard to predict if a destroyed habitat will recover, because processes occur very slowly in the Arctic environment. The natural fragmentation of the habitat is high, which makes it unpredictable how long it will take for charcateristic species to find there way back to restored salt marshes under natural conditions, although in general many salt marsh species may be dispersed relatively well by sea water or birds. If the natural contitions are restored and species come back there is still uncertanty about the success rate, because of the harsh climate.

Summary:
Arctic salt marsh develops along the muddy intertidal shores of cold regions in arctic Europe, and is known from northern Iceland, northern Norway and Svalbard, therefore only outside the EU28.  Although it shares some flora with Atlantic salt marsh, the distinguishing feature is an abundance of halophyte plants with a circumpolar distribution. Stands are usually small and there can be more open stretches of bare sediment. The habitat is under threat from coastal erosion, sea level rise, pollution and increased coastal recreation.

References:
Dierssen, K. (1996). Vegetation Nordeuropeas. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart.
Dijkema, K.S., W.G. Beeftink, J.P. Doody, J.M. Gehu, B. Heydemann & S. Rivas-Martinez (1984). Salt marshes in Europe. Report Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
International Arctic Science Committee a.o. (2011). State of the Arctic Coast 2010. Scientific Review and Outlook. Helmholtz-Zentrum, Institute of Coastal Research, Geesthacht, Germany.
Johanson, B., Tømmervik, H., Karlsen, S. R. and Elvebakk, R. 2010. Vegetation mapping of Svalbard, Arctic Norway, utilizing Landsat TM/ETM+ data. NORUT – NINA – UiTø.
Meltofte, H. (2013, ed.). Arctic Biodiversity Assessment. Status and trends in Arctic biodiversity. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, Akureyri.

Criterion A Text:
No present or historical decline is known, but future declines are expected due to sea level rise, resulting in salt marsh erosion. Quantitative data on the expected declines are not known. Although precise data are lacking, the future trends are assessed as (at least) Near Threatened under criterion A2a.

Criterion B Text:
The AOO calculated from the map is 38, but as data gaps exist in the distribution map it is expected to be slightly higher than 50 in reality. The habitat occurs in more than 10 locations and is only known from outside the EU28. Sea level rise and resulting coastal erosion is a threatening process that is expected to cause a negative decline in future (B1b, B2b). As the AOO is expected to be slightly higher than 50, criterion B2 is assessed as Near Threatened, based on B2b.

Criterion C/D Text:
No data on changes in quality are known.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type.

Synthesis:
No historical decline is known, but a general decline in salt marsh area is expected for the arctic region as a whole, as a result of coastal erosion due to sea level rise. Without any quantitative data for the EU28+ region the future trend in area (criterion A2a) is assessed to be at least close to Vulnerable, leading to the conclusion Near Threatened (NT). The same conclusion results from the relatively low number of sites (AOO) in combination with a future threat causing declines (criterion B2).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The species composition between Island, northern Norwaý and Svalbard differs rather much and three different subtypes may be distinguished.

Contributors:
Habitat description: J. Janssen
Data on Iceland: S. Heidmarsson
Working Group Coastal: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, H. Gardfjell, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, R. Tzonev


Habitat Description:
Sandy steppe grasslands of the Pannonian and Pontic regions, dominated by drought-tolerant, tussock-forming perennial grasses such as Festuca vaginata, Koeleria glauca and Stipa borysthenica, in eastern Europe also by Festuca beckeri. Besides these grasses, perennial herbs are common in these grasslands, many of them with a deep root system developed as an adaptation to periodical drought events occurring on sandy substrates. Short-lived vernal therophytes, bryophytes and lichens are also frequent. Vegetation is sparse, with a maximum cover of 75%. These grasslands of the order Festuco-Sedetalia acris grow on poorer developed soils than the oceanic and sub-oceanic grasslands of habitat E1.9a. This type is also more continentally distributed (drier climate) and associated with higher soil pH often well above 7, because under continental conditions the soils are much less leached than in more Atlantic climate. In most cases they also have a higher species richness. Frequent occurring continental species are Alyssum tortuosum, Astragalus arenarius, Dianthus arenarius, Dianthus serotinus, Erysimum canum, Euphorbia seguieriana, Gypsophila fastigiata, Helichrysum arenarium, Jurinea cyanoides and Secale sylvestre.
Sandy steppes occur on sandy plains and dunes with variable content of exchangeable cations, both of acidic and basic reaction. On acidic sand, transitions to sub-oceanic sandy grasslands (E1.9b) occur, especially in the western parts of this habitat’s range. Soils are poor in humus, belonging to the Arenosol type. Pannonian and Pontic sandy steppe occurs in lowlands with a pronounced continental climate characterized by warm and dry summer and cold winter, often with very shallow snow cover combined with long periods of frost. The surface layer of sand can warm up quickly during sunny days in summer, while the sandy substrate has a low water-holding capacity resulting in drought stress. Extreme drought events occurring in return intervals of several years can result in changes in species composition and relative cover of dominant species.
There are two main areas of distribution of these continental sandy steppes in Europe. One is the Pontic region including the steppe and forest-steppe zone of Ukraine and southern Russia (alliance Festucion beckeri), extending to the Danube valley in Romania and Bulgaria. The other is the Pannonian region including the Great Hungarian Plain (Alföld) and some adjacent lowland and hilly regions. Here the highest concentration of these grasslands is in central Hungary on the plains between the Danube and Tisza rivers (alliance Festucion vaginatae). Apart from these vicarious alliances dominated by perennial tussock grasses, there are two therophyte-dominated alliances of initial disturbed sites, namely the Sileno conicae-Cerastion semidecandri in the range of the Koelerion glaucae and the Bassio laniflorae-Bromion tectorum in the range of the Festucion vaginatae.
Stands of the alliance Koelerion glaucae can be found also on base rich sand in some areas in Poland, eastern Germany and the middle Rhine valley in western Germany, as well as in the Southern Baltic region (Öland, Finish south coast), but there is some discussion whether such stands should be included under E1.1a or E1.9a. In the Red List typology they have been included in habitat E1.9a, as it was indicated by most national experts from these region that it was not possible to distinguish these vegetation types as different habitats. The habitat type is absent from western Europe, high mountains and more northern regions.
Sandy steppes were used for extensive grazing by domestic livestock, especially sheep. This land-use resulted in extension of their area at the expense of forest, however, after cessation of traditional management many former sand-steppe areas are becoming overgrown by encroaching shrubs and trees such as Pinus sylvestris and Robinia pseudoacacia.
Indicators of good quality:
In Europe sandy steppes contain several species of continental distribution that occur at the western limit of their distribution range. Most valuable are extensive stands of sand steppe on inland dunes or plains with open vegetation without alien or nutrient-demanding species. Sand steppe can develop on abandoned fields adjacent to preserved remnants of natural vegetation, however, alien species may be common in these secondary grasslands. The main threats to this habitat are overgrowing by trees and shrubs after cessation of grazing, spread of alien species such as Robinia pseudoacacia or Asclepias syriaca, and increasing dominance of nutrient-demanding species due to atmospheric deposition.
The following characteristics can be considered as indicators of good quality:
·      Occurrence of rare species, especially those of continental distribution.
·      Absence of nutrient-demanding and mesophilous species.
·      Open character of vegetation.
·      Absence of alien species.
·      Absence of trees and shrubs.
·      Large spatial extent of grassland stands.
·      Continuation of traditional low-intensity grazing management.
Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Alkanna tinctoria, Alyssum montanum subsp. gmelinii, Alyssum tortuosum, Anchusa ochroleuca, Androsace septentrionalis, Artemisia campestris, Astragalus arenarius, Astagalus onobrychis, Astragalus varius, Bassia laniflora, Bromus tectorum, Carex ligerica, Centaurea arenaria subsp. tauscheri, Cerastium semidecandrum, Chondrilla juncea, Colchicum arenarium, Dianthus arenarius, Dianthus borbasii, Dianthus diutinus, Dianthus serotinus, Euphorbia seguieriana, Festuca beckeri, Festuca polesica, Festuca psammophila, Festuca tomanii, Festuca vaginata, Festuca wagneri, Gypsophila fastigiata, Gypsophila paniculata, Helichrysum arenarium, Hieracium echioides, Hieracium umbellatum, Holosteum umbellatum, Jasione montana, Jurinea cyanoides, Kochia laniflora, Koeleria glauca, Linaria genistifolia, Myosotis stricta, Onosma arenaria, Peucedanum arenarium, Pulsatilla pratensis subsp. pratensis, Secale sylvestre, Sedum acre, Sedum sexangulare, Sedum rupestre, Sedum urvillei, Silene conica, Silene chlorantha, Silene otites, Stipa borysthenica, Thymus serpyllum, Tragopogon floccosus, Veronica dillenii, Veronica praecox, Veronica verna.
Bryophytes: Abietinella abietina, Ceratodon purpureus, Racomitrium canescens agg., Syntrichia ruralis agg.
Lichens: Cetraria aculeata, Cetraria ericetorum, Cetraria islandica, Cladonia ciliata, Cladonia foliacea, Cladonia gracilis, Cladonia rangiformis, Cladonia scabriuscula, Diploschistes muscorum, Flavocetraria cucculata, Flavocetraria nivalis.
Fauna
Reptiles: Podarcis taurica.
Insects: Oedipoda caerulescens.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.1 Pioneer and open perennial grasslands of inland sands and rocky terrain
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Festucion vaginatae Soó 1929
Festucion beckeri Vicherek 1972
Bassio laniflorae-Bromion tectorum Borhidi 1996
Koelerion glaucae Volk 1931 (partly)
Sileno conicae-Cerastion semidecandri Korneck 1974 (partly)
Annex 1:
6250 Pannonic loessic steppic grasslands (partly)
6260* Pannonic sand steppes
Emerald:
E1.12 Euro-Siberian pioneer calcareous sand swards
E1.2 Perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes
MAES-2:
grassland
IUCN:
4.4. Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type is the typical element where there are dry nutrient-poor sands in the Pannonian and Steppic biogeographic regions where it is best developed.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete for the EU28, although there is some discussion on distribution (and classification of habitats) further northwards, but likely misses data in Serbia and southwards up to northern Greece. Data sources: Art17, EVA.

Trends in Quantity:
Recent trend EU28: -66% - EU28+: -66% (based on 100% of the total area reported). Long-term trend EU28: -97% - EU28+: -97% (based on 99.5% of the total area reported). The trends are rather consistent among the countries with well-founded data. For the future, most countries expect something between slight decrease and stability.

Trends in Quality:
Within EU28, 31% of the remaining area are degraded with 33% severity, while within EU28+ 31% of the remaining area are degraded with 33% severity.

Pressures and Threats:
The main threats throughout the distribution range are abandonment of traditional pastoral systems and thus lack of grazing, sometimes combined with atmogenic nitrogen input. This then leads to a natural succession towards forests (typically pine forests) or towards less-specialized sandy grasslands on better developed soils (here considered as E1.9a). Afforestation as well as expansion of invasive native (e.g. Calamagrostis epigejos) and non-native (e.g. Asclepias syriaca) species also often play a role. By contrast, sand extraction, leisure activities (human trampling or motocross) or regulation of river courses are relevant courses of threat only locally, but they can be important in countries where the area of the habitat type is already small.

Conservation and Management:
Since the areas of this habitat type are often small to tiny, they should be protected legally as far as possible. The most important management activity is the maintenance or re-establishment of low-intensity grazing, typically by sheep. However, if the sites are still large and not eutrophicated at all, they can remain +/- stable for rather long periods even without grazing. If the habitat has been encroached by or planted with woody species or is affected by invasive species, their removal can be a promising measure, provided that eutrophication has not taken place in parallel. When site are eutrophicated they hardly can be restored, except by putting nutrient-poor sand from the deeper horizons to the top. The latter approach has been impressively successful in pilot studies, but normally the high costs exclude the application at a larger extent.

Conservation Status:
6250: CON U1, PAN U2
6260: CON U2, PAN U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
If the habitat is distroyed/deteriorated, it normally can only recover through intervention (removing woody or invasive species, re-establishment of low-intensity grazing). The only exception is the damage via sand extraction, where the habitat can easily recover when the extraction is stopped, provided no eutrophicatio took place meanwhile.

Summary:
These are steppe grasslands dominated by perennial tussock-grasses and herbs, with frequent annuals and cryptogams, typical of nutrient-poor, base-rich, sandy soils on plains and dunes through the Pannonian, Pontic and southern Baltic regions.  The climate is strongly continental with cold winters, often with long frosts and shallow snow, and hot, droughty summers.  Traditionally used for extensive grazing by stock, particularly sheep, abandonment of this management has caused widespread reversion to scrub and woodland, sometimes with alien shrubs and trees.  Such grasslands are also vulnerable to eutrophication from atmospheric inputs. Never extensive in the EU, this habitat has seen enormous losses and smaller, fragmentary stands on the margins of the main surviving extent in Hungary remain extremely threatened.  Restoration demands clearance of less damaged sites and re-establishment of appropriate grazing or, where the habitat is enriched, soil inversion.

References:
AÄ‡iÄ‡, S., Šilc, U., PetroviÄ‡, M., TomoviÄ‡, G. and DajiÄ‡ StevanoviÄ‡, Z. 2015. Classification, ecology and biodiversity of Central Balkan dry grasslands. Tuexenia 35: 329–353.
Andersson, O. 1950. The Scanian sand vegetation – a survey. Bot. Not. 1950: 145–172.
Boch, S. and Dengler, J. 2006. Floristische und ökologische Charakterisierung sowie Phytodiversität der Trockenrasen auf der Insel Saaremaa (Estland). Arbeiten aus dem Institut für Landschaftsökologie Münster 15: 55–71.
Dengler, J. 2001. Erstellung und Interpretation synchorologischer Karten am Beispiel der Klasse Koelerio-Corynephoretea. Berichte der Reinhold-Tüxen-Gesellschaft 13: 223–228.
Fotiadis, G., Vrahnakis, M., Kazoglou, Y. and Tsiripidis, I. 2014. Dry grassland types in the Prespa National Park (NW Greece), including the southernmost occurrence of the priority habitat type “Pannonic sand steppes” (code 6260). Hacquetia 13: 171–189.
Krausch, H.-D. 1968. Die Sandtrockenrasen (Sedo-Scleranthetea) in Brandenburg. Mitteilungen der Floristisch-Soziologischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft N.F. 13: 71–100.
Krausch, H.-D. 1965. Vegetationskundliche Beobachtungen im Donaudelta. Limnologica 3: 271–313.
Kuzemko, A. 2009. Dry grasslands on sandy soils in the forest and forest-steppe zones of the plains part of Ukraine: present state of syntaxonomy. Tuexenia 29: 369–390.
Laime, B., Tjarve, D. 2009. Grey dune plant communities (Koelerio-Corynephoretea) on the Baltic coast in Latvia. Tuexenia 29: 409–435.
Löbel, S. and Dengler, J. 2008 [“2007”]. Dry grassland communities on southern Öland: phytosociology, ecology, and diversity. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica 88: 13–31.
Molnár, Z., Biró, M., Bölöni, J. and Horváth, F. 2008. Distribution of the (semi-)natural habitats in Hungary I. Marshes and grasslands. Acta Botanica Hungarica 50 (Suppl.): 59–105.
Stroh, M., Storm, C. and Schwabe, A. 2007. Untersuchungen zur Restitution von Sandtrockenrasen: das Seeheim-Jugenheim-Experiment in Südhessen (1999 bis 2005). Tuexenia 27: 287–306.
Vicherek, J. 1972. Die Sandpflanzengesellschaften des unteren und mittleren Dnjeprstromgebietes (die Ukraine). Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 7: 9–46.
Volk, O.H. 1931. Beiträge zur Ökologie der Sandvegetation der oberrheinischen Tiefebene. Z. Bot. 24: 81–185.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 are calculated from the territorial data sheets, which were available for 9 countries. The provided data were far too incomplete to allow assessment of A2a and A2b. The analysis is strongly dominated by data from Hungary which covers most of the area.

Criterion B Text:
EOO and AOO are much larger than the thresholds for the criteria B1 and B2.

Criterion C/D Text:
The data for C/D1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets, which provided assessments for 7 countries. No data were available for C/D2 and C/D3. The degradation quality refers to both biotic features and abiotic circumstances.

Synthesis:
Based on a long-term reduction in quantity of 97%, this habitat type is assessed Critically Endangered (CR) both in EU28 and EU28+. Furthermore, the reduction in quantity during the last 50 years qualifies as endangered (EN), while the reduction in biotic and abiotic quality was not high enough to result in a Red List category.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The delineation of the habitat in northern and eastern direction should be further examined. Southern Baltic steppic grasslands of the alliance Koelerion glaucae were proposed for being included in this habitat by some countries, but in other

Contributors:
Type description: M. Chytrý
Territorial data: C. Bita-Nicolae, M. Chytrý, P. Finck, M. Janišová, Z. Molnár, D. Paternoster, U. Raths, U. Riecken, E. Roosaluste, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, R. Tzonev
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
B1.3a Atlantic and Baltic shifting coastal dune

Habitat Description:
Primary dunes and white dunes along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, including the North Sea, and the Baltic Sea. Primary dunes are found on sandy beaches along sedimentary coasts, where plenty of sand is available. They are formed by Elytrigia farctus, which is able to catch blowing sand and built up small dunes, in some cases mixed with drift line species (Cakile maritima, Salsola kali). In the northern Baltic Sea embryonic dunes are formed by Leymus arenarius and occasionally also by Honckenya peploides or Agrostis stolonifera. Such embryonic dunes often last only a year and disappear after severe storms. In sheltered conditions, for examples along expanding coasts, they may however grow higher, outside the influence of salt ground water, until a level where Ammophila arenaria is able to establish and to provide more stability to the dunes. Marram grass can develop a very deep root system with which the plant grows higher and higher when overblown by sand. In this way dunes grow up to high ridges, forming the so-called white dunes (named after the soil color which is related to the absence of organic, “grey” material). White dunes have a very open vegetation cover, an alternating relief and form (still) a very dynamic environment (due to wind and salt spray) where few species can survive. In good conditions there is a clear zonation of primary and white dunes, while on very broad, expanding shores even large areas with a mixture of embryonic dunes, drift-line communities and white dunes may develop.
Leymus arenarius and x Calamagrostis baltica can have a similar role as Ammophila in relatively cold regions, although the white dunes (in fact “black” on volcanic Iceland) don’t grow that high in cold regions. A constant species in all Atlantic and Baltic white dunes is Festuca arenaria. Other associated species are Sonchus arvensis var. maritimus, Oenanthe oakesiana, Honckenya peploides, in boreal regions Lathyrus japonicus and in relatively warm regions Calystegia soldanella, Eryngium maritimum, Euphorbia paralias, Polygonum maritimum, and several species more typical for Mediterranean white dunes (see habitat B1.3b). Amongst the more restricted species are Linaria loeselii (Baltics), Pancratium maritimum, Linaria thymifolia and Hieracium eriophorum (Southwestern France) and Galium arenarium and Galium neglectum (Bay of Biscaye and Channel islands).
Besides the relatively low diversity of vascular plants some remarkable fungi grow here, several of them being restricted to coastal dunes. Examples are Agaricus devoniensis, Cyathus stercoreus, Hohenbuehelia culmicola, Melanoleuca cinereifolia, Peziza ammophila, Phallus hadriani, Psathyrella ammophila and Stropharia halophila.
The fauna of this extreme habitat contains several specialized species of beetle.
Indicators of good quality:
·      Natural zonation from embryonic dunes to white dunes, or mosaic of embryonic and white dunes
·      Irregular vegetation structure, with open sand
·      Irregular, alternating relief (with high ridges and depressions)
·      Presence of characteristic fungi
·      No disturbance by man
·      Absence of erosion patterns
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Agrostis stolonifera, Ammophila arenaria, Astragalus baionensis, Cakile maritima, x Calamagrostis baltica, Calystegia soldanella, Elymus farctus subsp. boreoatlantica, Eryngium maritimum, Euphorbia paralias, Festuca arenaria, Galium arenarium, Galium maritimum, Galium neglectum, Honckenya peploides, Hieracium eriophorum, Lathyrus japonicus, Leymus arenarius, Linaria thymifolia, Linaria loeselii, Mathiola sinuata, Oenanthe oakesiana, Pancratium maritimum, Polygonum maritimum, Silene uniflora subsp. thorei, Solidago virgaurea subsp. macrorhiza, Sonchus arvensis var. maritimus
Fungi: Agaricus devoniensis, Cyathus stercoreus, Hohenbuehelia culmicola, Melanoleuca cinereifolia, Peziza ammophila, Phallus hadriani, Psathyrella ammophila, Stropharia halophila

Classification:
EUNIS:
B1.3 Shifting coastal dunes
Euroveg Checklist:
Ammophilion Br.-Bl. 1921
Elymion arenarii Christiansen 1927
Agropyro-Honckenyon peploidis Tx. in Br-Bl. et Tx. 1952 nom. mut.
Annex 1:
2110 Embryonic shifting dunes
2120 Shifting dunes along the shoreline with Ammophila arenaria (white dunes)
Emerald:
B1.3 Shifting coastal dunes
MAES-2:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
13.3 Coastal Sand Dunes

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
It is distributed in the Atlantic and Boreal regions along the Atlantic, Noth Sea and Baltic Sea shores. In the boreal region the subhabitat dominated by Leymus arenarius is characteristic.

Map Description:
Map rather complete, with data gaps in Iceland. Data sources: EVA, ART17.

Trends in Quantity:
Concerning quantity, there is a clear trend separating the northern countries from those of the south. In the former the trend is stable with quite slight local tendencies to reduction, while in the south, particularly in the Iberian countries, the decrease has been and still is severe. This is mainly due to the development of coastal tourism in the last 100 years, with heavy urbanisation and visitors pressure. This pressures are expected to continue in the future if no measures are taken. Some countries have still large areas of this habitat due to the length and width of their low coasts (Netherlands, France, Poland or UK), while others have much less of it due to a rocky coast. In the latter countries this habitat is much more vulnerable than in the former. The estimated overall trend in the last 50 years is a decrease of 22%.

Trends in Quality:
Quite similarly as in the trends in quantity, the damage in quality, although affecting important areas, is stable in the north, while showing in the south an increasing intensity. This is also due to the development of coastal tourism in the last 100 years and it also is expected to continue if no measures are taken. In any case, the qualitative degradation affects large proportions of the current extent due to the dispersed disturbance taking place nowadays and in the recent past. The current average degraded area for EU28 is 48% with a severity of 52%, as has been calculated from territorial data. However, ranges have been indicated by some conutries, and the maximum degradation given results in a calculated extent of 50% and severity of 57%.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Ca 90% of the habitat type is within the EU28, only Norway, Kaliningrad, Iceland and the Channel Islands have a significant representation of it out of EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The geographical range of the habitat (EOO) is very wide and the decline in extent has been moderate and has happened mostly in the south.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The geographical range of the habitat (EOO) is very wide and the habitat usually occurs as long, linear features parallel to the coastline.

Pressures and Threats:
Main pressures are: 1.Trampling overuse related with outdoor sport and recreational leisure activities (tourism); 2.Urbanisation with building of corridors and parking lots; 3.Construction of dykes, embankments, artificial beaches, sea defense or coast protection works, tidal barrages, etc.; 4.Climate change wit the increase of precipitation and the length of the growing season resulting in an increase of fixation and an increase of the erosion of the dunes system resulted from the elevation of the sea level; 5.Invasion of alien species: in the southern countries many dunes are invaded by Oenothera sp. pl., Stenotaphrum secundatum, Carpobrotus edulis, Conyza sp. pl., etc., while in the northern regions, Rosa rugosa and Pragmites australis often invade the dune. In some areas extensive artificial pine plantations have covered substantial areas of this habitat.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is threatened in the context of all the coastal dunes systems particularly in southern Europe: pressure for human use as recreational areas plus pressure for construction of various elements. A general legislation to prevent construction in a strip of the shoreline should be common to the whole EU, and determining the progressive demolition of any building or built area in this habitat after a period. Other relevant measures are: strict conservation of remainig areas, surveillance and control of the trampling and overuse in visited areas, monitoring to control alien species invasion and programs to remove its populations are required, and cancellation of further artificial pine plantations and progressive logging of the existing trees.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
2110: ATL U1, BOR U1, MAC U2
2120: ATL U1, BOR U1, MAC U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Naturally this habitat recovers after a few decades, but it depends very much on the proximity of a seeds source. If such is available, natural regeneration is a good option. If the regeneration is on a very disturbed site, the intervention by planting Ammophila and/or Elymus is recommended, always using regionally collected material to prevent genetic pollution

Summary:
This habitat includes the primary, shifting (so called 'white') dunes of dynamic coastal sands along the Atlantic, North Sea and Baltic coasts. Early pioneers upshore from the strandline catch sand blown from the beach and initiate foredune, then embryo dune, development, stages which may come and go with subsequent storms, or continue to build higher, mobile dunes that move inland, sometimes to enormous size and in distinct ridges with intervening valleys. Ammophila arenaria is the widespread dominant in the middle to later stages, a grass especially well equipped to cope with rapid upbuild and continually shifting sands, with Leymus arenarius and Calamagrostis baltica playing a similar role in colder regions. The vegetation cover on the sharply-draining, nutrient-poor sand is typically open with few, but distinctive, associates, some indicative of the regional temperature contrasts, and some striking fungi. Specialised beetles are also characteristic. Though sensitive to disturbance from tourism, over-stabilisation by tree-planting to protect inland property has been more of a problem and, for maintaining quality, continuing mobility of sediment is essential, a condition hard to attain or tolerate on developed coastlines. Other pressures include sand extraction and coastal infra-structure development.

References:
AuniÅ†, A. 2013 (ed.). European Union protected habitats in Latvia. Interpretation Manual. Latvian Fund for Nature, Ministry of Environmental protection and regional development, Riga.
Bensettiti, F., Bioret, F., Géhu, J-M., Glémarec, M. and Bellan-Santini, D. 2004. Cahiers d’habitats Natura 2000: 2. Habitats côtiers. La Documentation française, 399 p.
Géhu, J-M. and Géhu-Franck, J. 1969. Les associations végétales des dunes mobiles et des bordures de plages de la côte atlantique française. Vegetatio 18(1-6): 122-166.
Géhu, J-M. and Tüxen, R. 1975.  Essai de synthèse phytosociologique des dunes atlantiques européennes. Colloques Phytosociologiques I: 61-70.
Loriente, E. 1974. Vegetación y flora de las playas y dunas de la provincia de Santander. Institución Cultural de Cantabria. Diputación Provincial de Santander, Santander, 290 p.
Schaminée, J.H.J., Weeda, E.J. and Westhoff, V. 1998. De vegetatie van Nederland, deel 4. Plantengemeenschappen van de kust en van binnenlandse pioniermilieus. Opuluss Press, Uppsala/Leiden.

Criterion A Text:
The calculated trend in the last 50 years is a reduction of about 22% (resulting in category Least Concern). This habitat has suffered historically a much larger reduction in quantity due to human pressure in most of the European countries, particularly in the southern ones. Based on the long-term reduction in quantity provided by several countries (a.o. Spain, Germany, UK, Denmark, Netherlands), and assuming that the reduction in other countries (France) was similar, an overall reduction of 35-40% is calculated for Europe. As the thresholds for longterm changes are relatively high, this figure just leads to a red list category of Near Threatened. The reduction is expected to be smaller in the future, although it still may be relatively large in southern countries.

Criterion B Text:
The geographic distribution of this habitat is very large across many countries, and EOO and AOO do not meet the thresholds for criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
Based on the territorial data provided by almost all countries, the reduction in quality over the last 50 years affected between 45-50% (48 on average) of the extent, with a relative severity of 48-57% (52 on average). The maximum figures result in a VU category, the lower figures in NT. Most countries indicated that the reduction is both biotic and abiotic. Insufficient data is given for long historical reduction in quality. Indications for future trends vary a lot, between stable, decrease and unknown. Based on expert opinion the lower category (Near Threatened) is chosen as the final result for this criterion.

Synthesis:
This habitat reaches the qualification of Near Threatened (NT) because of a strong reduction in quality over the last 50 years (criterion C/D1). For this criterion maximum values reported even reach the Vulnerable category, and it is likely that in the southern parts of the range this category is more applicable. Also the longer historical decrease in area (criterion A3) is relatively high, resulting in the category Near Threatened, but in this case the uncertainty range is closer to the Least Concern category.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The situation of this habitat is different in the northern countries compared to the southern ones (France, Spain and Portugal mainly) as the touristic pressure is much higher in the latter. Therefore an assessment of a southern sub-habitat would proba

Contributors:
Type description: J. Janssen
Territorial data: S. Angus, F. Bioret, J. Campos, J. Capelo, A. Church, P. Corbett, J. Creer, P. Finck, T. Haynes, J. Janssen, Z. KÄ…cki, T. Kontula, J. Martin, B. Nygaard, S. Provoost, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, S. Rees, U. Riecken, E. Roosaluste, C. Scanlan, A. Ssymank, S. Watt
Working Group Coastal: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, H. Gardfjell, R. Tzonev


Habitat Description:
This habitat comprises natural grasslands on saline, clayey substrates along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, including the North Sea, characterized by halophytes. The northern limit of the habitat lies in northern Iceland and northern Norway (see habitat A2.5a), the southern limit lies in central Portugal (estuary of river Mondego),from which point southwards the salt marshes have predominantly Mediterranean characteristics. The most important factor for this azonal habitat is flooding by sea water, creating a gradient from lower, daily flooded parts towards higher parts with a low flooding frequency and duration and a more fluctuating soil salinity. With the flooding, sediments are brought in, and differences in sedimentation patterns (sand is deposited in the more dynamic parts, clay in low dynamic areas) creates a geomorphology of deep drainage channels (creeks), bordered by higher, sandy levees, with lower, clayey depressions behind. The salt marshes form transitions to bare mud flats on the lower elevation, and dunes or dune slacks on the higher part. These salt marshes are found in sheltered parts along the coast, like in lagoons, in sea inlets behind dunes, on the inland side of barrier islands, in estuaries, and in the Wadden Sea also on so-called “green beaches” (transition areas flooded both from North Sea and Wadden Sea) and rarely on sheltered parts of broad beaches.
The typical zonation of the North-Western Atlantic contains very open annual Salicornia species and perennial Spartina fields in the pioneer marsh (alliances Thero-Salicornion, Spartinion maritimae), open communities of Puccinellia maritima, Limonium vulgare, Halimione portulacoides , Triglochin maritima , Spergularia maritima and Plantago maritima in the lower salt marsh (alliance Puccinellion maritimae) and more closed communities of Juncus gerardi, Festuca rubra, Agrostis stolonifera, Armeria maritima, Elytrigia pycnanthus, Juncus maritimus and Artemisia maritima in the higher salt marsh (alliance Armerion maritimae). The latter form transitions towards brackish Potentillion anserinae communities (sometimes considered as Loto tenuis-Trifolion fragiferi Westhoff et Den Held ex de Foucault 2009) or towards Plantago coronopus, Sagina maritima and Cochlearia danica ommunities (alliance Saginion maritimae) on rarely flooded sand dunes. In places with seepage of freshwater, Blysmus rufus, Phragmites australis or Bolboschoenus maritimus may dominate the vegetation (alliance Scirpion maritimae). Also Apium graveolens and Oenanthe lachenalii are characteristic for such brackish transitions. Alpha diversity is in general low and rare species are few, for example Halimione pedunculata, Salicornia disarticulata, Scirpus americanus, Hordeum maritimum, Puccinellia fasciculata  and Bupleurum tenuissimum. In the thermo-Atlantic regions of Southwestern France, Northern Spain and Portugal, several other species with an Atlantic-Mediterranean distribution are found. In the first place several perennials chenopods grow here, like Sarcocornia perennis, Arthrocnemum fruticosum and Suaeda vera. Other ‘southern elements’ include Inula crithmoides, Juncus acutus, Frankenia laevis, Hutchinsia procumbens, Triglochin bulbosa subsp. barrelieri, Parapholis incurva, and Spartina maritima on the lower parts of the salt marsh.
Along the Atlantic coast saline meadows are also found in sites that have been embanked, sometimes centuries or decades ago, but still are fed with saline or brackish water. Such salt marshes often lack the typical  geomorphology but contain almost the same species composition as freely flooded salt marshes.  They are described here as part of Atlantic salt marshes; in most cases they only represent a small part of the area of the habitat type.
Many of the salt marshes along the Atlantic coast have a long tradition of extensive grazing. Ungrazed salt marshes are rare, but large examples exist, for instance in the Netherlands. No management leads, because of progressing clay sedimentation and nutrient enrichment, towards relatively species poor salt-marshes, were the lower belts are dominated by Halimione portulacoides, and the higher parts by Elytrigia atherica  (pycnanthus). Close to dunes or dikes Phragmites australis may dominate, but unlike in the Baltics, salinity and larger tidal fluctuations prevent reed to dominate large areas and threaten the diversity of the salt marshes. Therefore, reed beds form part of the Atlantic salt marshes, end in almost all cases these reed beds contain several halophytes. In general it is expected that low extensive grazing causes the highest biodiversity in Atlantic salt marshes.
Salt marshes are important stop overs on the fly ways of migrating birds. Puccinellia maritima for example provides a consistent diet for goose species. The habitat also is an important breeding and resting site for many waders. Besides for birds, salt marshes are important for specialized invertebrates (insects), many of them living just on one or a few halophytic plant species. They are considered as very productive ecosystems and the creeks form nurseries for some fish species, like Dicentrarchus labrax.
Salt marshes are threatened by drainage, building of hard sea defense systems (dikes), modification of the topography, invasive species (Spartina anglica, Spartina alterniflora) and eutrophication of the sea water. Sea level rise, resulting from climatic change, may cause erosion, especially of the pioneer belts with Salicornia where vegetation cover is very low.
Indicators of good quality:
The following characteristics are considered as indicators of good quality:
Pattern of branching creeks, with levees and depressions
Regularly flooding with sea water (absence of dikes…)
Presence of rare species
Low level or absence of invasive and nitrophilous species
Complete set of zonation belts, with no overrepresentation of certain belts
Absence of erosion

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Agrostis stolonifera, Armeria maritima,  Apium graveolens,Artemisia maritima, Aster tripolium, Atriplex litoralis, Atriplex prostrata, Blysmus rufus, Bolboschoenus maritimus, Bupleurum tenuissimum, Carex distans,  Carex extensa, Centaurium littorale,Centaurium pulchellum,Cochlearia danica, Cochlearia officinalis ssp. anglica, Cochlearia officinalis ssp. officinalis, Desmazeria marina, Festuca rubra, Frankenia laevis, Frankenia pulverulenta, Glaux maritima, Halimione pedunculata, Halimione portulacoides, Hordeum marinum, Hutchinsia procumbens, Juncus gerardi, Juncus maritimus, Limonium vulgare, Lotus tenuis,Odontites littoralis, Oenanthe lachenalii, Parapholis incurva, Parapholis strigosa, Phragmites australis,Plantago coronopus, Plantago maritima,Potentilla anserina, Puccinellia distans ssp. distans,Puccinellia fasciculata, Puccinellia maritima, Sagina maritima, Salicornia disarticulata, Salicornia europaea agg (S. brachystachya, S. obscura, S. ramosissima), Salicornia procumbens agg. (S. dolichostachya, S. fragilis, S. nitens, S. procumbens s. decumbens), Sarcocornia perennis, Spartina anglica, Spartina alterniflora, Spartina maritima, Spergularia maritima,Spergularia salina, Suaeda maritima, Triglochin bulbosa subsp. barrelieri, Triglochin maritima, Trifolium fragiferum, Triglochin maritima.
Mosses: Hennediella heimii (Pottia heimii)
Birds: Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), Pied avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), Common shelduck (Tadorna tadorna), Common redshank (Tringa totanus ssp. totanus), Common eider (Somateria mollissima), ....

Classification:
EUNIS:
A2.5 Coastal saltmarshes and saline reedbeds
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Puccinellion maritimae Christiansen 1927 (= Festucion maritimae)
Armerion maritimae Br.-Bl. et De Leeuw 1936
Atriplicion littoralis Nordhagen 1940
Thero-Salicornion Br.-Bl. 1933
Puccinellio maritimae-Spergularion salinae Beeftink 1965
Scirpion maritimi Dahl et Hadac 1941
Loto tenuis-Trifolion fragiferi Westhoff et Den Held ex de Foucault 2009 (= Potentillion anserinae Tx. 1947 p.p.)
Saginion maritimae Westhoff et al. 1962
Annex 1:
1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonising mud and sand (within the Atlantic region)
1320 Spartina swards
1330 Atlantic salt meadows (Glauco-Puccinellietalia maritimae)
Emerald:
A2.5 Coastal saltmarshes and reedbeds
MAES-2:
Marine inlets and transitional waters
IUCN:
12.5. Salt Marshes [Emergent Grasses]

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This is the most typical habitat for the muddy sea shores of the Atlantic region.

Map Description:
The map is almost complete, except for Norway and Iceland. Data sources: ART17, EVA, BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
Based on territorial data the average decrease over a period of about 50 years in the countries of the EU is 26%. For the non-EU countries no data is available. It is assessed that the decline is a bit less in those countries (most important: Iceland, Norway), but the area there is relatively low compared to the area in the EU countries.

Trends in Quality:
Calculated from the territorial data, within the EU on average 63% of the area of the habitat has suffered from a degradation in quality. The average severity of the degradation in this affected area is 57%. The data is strongly influenced by France, which reported about 30% of the area. These calculations are based on data from more than 90% of the reported area.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat usually covers relatively large areas in most sites.

Pressures and Threats:
Within the countries of the EU the pressures and threats vary a bit. Southern countries (Spain, Portugal, France) indicate direct destruction by urbanization among the main threats, while most of the countries indicate modifications to hydrographic functioning, which may be caused by building structures. Pollution is an important threat in most countries. Overgrazing is a problem in the UK and Ireland, while some other countries report problems with abandonment, leading to relatively species-poor climax stages. Finally, invasive species form a problem in some salt marshes.

Conservation and Management:
For maintaining the diversity of salt marshes - often represented in the occurrence of different zonation belts (with different flooding regimes) - extensive grazing by cattle or sheep is known to be the optimum management. However, unmanaged salt marshes in Europe are relatively rare, and for some specific sites no management may be a relevant choice. In general no management (like abandonment) leads to relatively species-poor climax stages on salt marshes, but exceptions may occur, in cases where salt marshes are very dynamic and natural dynamics (flooding, goose and hare grazing) guarantee the occurrence of young succession stages for a long time. In some countries the prevention of bird hunting may be an important management action.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
1310: ATL U2, BOR U1
1320: ATL U2
1330: ATL U2, BOR U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat is able to recover relatively quickly from degradation in a natural way, as long as sediment is available and there is a natural flooding regime by the sea.

Summary:
Atlantic salt marsh comprises natural grasslands developed on sands and clays subject to tidal fluctuation along more sheltered stretches of the Atlantic European coast, north of mid-Portugal, and around the North Sea. Outside the EU28, small areas from Iceland and Norway are included here. The vegetation varies according to the frequency and length of inundation, the regional climate and sediment type, and there is typically a zonation from more to less halophytic assemblages of grasses and herbs in moving up-marsh. However, this is often complicated by patterns of creeks and pans, and the influence of grazing at higher levels. The habitat provides an important nesting and feeding resource for waders and stopovers for migratory birds.The most important pressures are related to direct destruction for industry, settlements and transportation, degradation of the hydrographic functionality, pollution and spread of non-native species, some introduced for fixing labile sediments. Also, changes in pastoral management with overgrazing or abandonment are threatening in a few countries. With rising sea-levels and shifting coastal sediments, further changes can be expected.

References:
Beeftink, W.G. (1977).The coastal salt marshes of Western and Northern Europe: an ecological and phytosociological approach. In: Chapman, V. (ed.), Ecosystems of the World 1: wet coastal ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxford, New York.
Dijkema, K.S., W.G. Beeftink, J.P. Doody, J.M. Géhu, B. Heydemann & S. Rivas-Martinez (1984). Salt marshes in Europe. Report Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
Géhu, J.-M. (1976). Approche phytosociologique synthétique de la végétation des vases salées du littoral atlantique français. Colloques Phytosoc., IV Vases salées : 395-462.
Géhu J.-M. (1992). Essai de typologie syntaxonomique des communautés européennes de Salicornes annuelles. Colloques Phytosociologiques XVIII "Phytosociologie littorale et Taxonomie", Bailleul 1989: 243-260.

Criterion A Text:
The average negative trend in area in the EU countries is based on data from eight countries, covering more than 90% of the reported area. Data for Sweden and non-EU countries are lacking, but these countries contribute relatively little to the overall area of the Atlantic salt marshes. No good data on historical or future declines are available.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO is much larger than 50,000 km2, while the AOO is much larger than 50, both in the EU28 and EU28+. Also the number of locations is too high to meet the thresholds for criteria under B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The affected extent and the severity of degradation have been calculated based on EU countries only. For non-EU countries like Iceland and Norway no data is available. It is estimated that data from outside the EU will only slightly affect the overall figures. Most countries report the degradation in quality to be caused from a combination of abiotic degradation and biotic losses.

Synthesis:
Atlantic salt marshes have undergone a reduction in area of about 26% in the EU countries during the last 50 years, while large parts (>60%) of the remaining area are negatively affected, with relatively high severity (58%). Such figures for countries outside the EU (mainly Iceland and Norway) are unknown, but assumed to be slightly better, but the habitat is mostly restricted to the EU and therefore the conclusion is applied to both the EU28 and EU28+ region. The severe reduction in quality parameters results in the Red List category Vulnerable (VU), while for reduction in quantity the category Near Threatened is scored.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
There are no specific sub-habitats that may require further examination.

Contributors:
Habitat description: J. Janssen
Territorial data: S. Angus, F. Bioret, A. Church, J. Creer, P. Finck, J. Loidi, J. Capelo, P. Corbett, D. Espírito-Santo, T. Haynes, J. Janssen, B. Nygaard, D. Paelinckx, P. Perrin, U. Raths, S. Rees, U. Riecken, C. Scanlan, A. Ssymank, S. Watt
 
Working Group Coastal: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, H. Gardfjell, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
A2.5d Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal salt marsh

Habitat Description:
These coastal salt marshes include various Mediterranean and western Black Sea plant communities of the classes Juncetea maritimi and Salicornietea fruticosae which are under influence of saline sea water. On the thermo-Atlantic coast along the SW Iberian Peninsula tidal flooding is relevant and determines communities zonation. The northern limit of this habitat along the Atlantic shores is the Mondego river mouth in Central Portugal. In the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, soil texture, salinity and water content govern the main gradients. The vegetation is dominated by perennial and shrubby halophytes growing on the extreme upper shores of low sedimentary coasts, sheltered from the waves mechanical action.
The habitat can develop on a variety of sandy and muddy sediments, but in coasts with coarse sands beach communities develop (habitat B1.1b). The species composition is diverse, depending on the geographical range and the climatic conditions. On the Black Sea coast this habitat is presented mainly by mono-dominant communities of the tall rushes Juncus maritimus and/or Juncus acutus. Besides, shrub communities of Halocnemum stobilaceum occur in the Northern Black Sea coast of Romania and Ukraine. However, in the Danube Delta and on the marine sandbanks within the Razelm-Sinoe lagoon complex (known as the southern Delta), behind sand dunes or around saline ponds and lakes, salt marshes occur with vegetation more similar to continental inland salt marshes, for example with Salicornia perennans, Puccinellia limosa and Juncus gerardi.
In the Mediterranean the habitat is much more diverse, especially in the Iberian Peninsula and in southern Italy (Sicily, Apulia, Calabria), where soil salinity levels reach the highest values due to extreme climatic summer drought. In these parts of the range the habitat forms a mosaic of tall rushes mixed with shrubby and other herbaceous species, often with succulent stems and/or leaves, forming halophytic shrublads and thickets (alliances Arthrocnemion glauci and Salicornion fruticosae).In soils with brackish water beds of reed and other tall helophytes grow. Annual halophytic species (Salicornia sp., Suaeda sp) may exist in small spots occupying depressions between the communities of tall rush, shrub and thickets (class Thero-Salicornietea), while Frankenia spp. and Sagina maritima (class Saginetea maritimae) grow on the higher parts of sandy shores. The habitat further includes Mediterranean halo-psammophile meadows (Plantaginion crassifoliae), humid halophilous moors with the shrubby stratum dominated by Artemisia coerulescens (Agropyro-Artemision coerulescentis), halo-nitrophilous shrubby seablite thickets of Suaeda vera rarely inundated (Suaedion verae), shrub communities of Limoniastrum sp. (Limonastrion monopetali, Limonion algarvenso-lanceolatii), and communities in the Dalmatian coastal region, in somewhat drier habitats with less salt, which are not directly affected by waves and tides (Agropyro-Plantaginion maritime). On intertidal muds, cord grasses (Spartinion maritimae) may grow, but these are relatively rare in the Mediterranean and more common along the Atlantic coast.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Aeluropus littoralis, Artemisia caerulescens, A. gallica, A. santonicum, Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Aster tripolium, Atriplex hastata, Bassia hirsuta, Carex extensa, C. distachya, Centaurium tenuiflorum, Centaurea dracunculifolia, Elymus athericus, Elymus elongatus, Limbarda crithmoides, Iris spuria, Juncus acutus, J. maritimus, J. subulatus, Gladiolus communis, Gypsophila tomentosa, Halocnemum strobilaceum, Halimione portulacoides, Frankenia hirsuta, F. pulverulenta, Limoniastrum monopetalum, Limonium algarvenso-lanceolatum, L. bellidifolium, L. gmelini, L. narbonense, L. oleifolium, Limonium supinum, L. virgatum, Linum maritimum, Lotus presili, L. tenuis, Plantago crassifolia, P. cornuti, P. maritima, Rumex pulcher, Puccinellia convoluta, P. festuciformis, Schoenus nigricans, Salsola soda, Sarcocornia fruticosa, S. perennis, Senecio aurícula, Sonchus crassifolius, S. maritimus, Suaeda maritima, S. splendens, S. vera, Triglochin bulbosum. 
Indicators of good quality:
In good conditions the habitat is a complex of different salt-marsh meadows, perennial herbs and halophytic succulent shrubs, annuals, halo-nitrophilous communities and beds of tall helophytes. It is sensitive to changes in the water regime (drainage, flooding), which quickly change the balance between the communities in the salt marshes due to aridification or over wetting.The following characteristics may be considered as indicators of good quality, but these indicators differ in different regions and between communities:
occurrence of mosaics and gradients between the different plant communities in the salt marshes, with no over-representation of some groups;
long-term stability in the dynamic of flooding and the water salinity.

Classification:
EUNIS:
A2.5 Coastal saltmarshes and saline reedbeds
EuroVegChecklist alliances:
Agropyro-Artemision coerulescentis Pignatti 1953
Agropyro-Plantaginion maritimi Horvatic 1934
Agrostio-Elytrigion athericae S. Brullo et Siracusa 2000
Arthrocnemion glauci Rivas-Mart. et Costa 1984
Frankenio laevis-Armerion maritimae Géhu et Géhu-Franck 1975
Juncion maritimi Br.-Bl. ex Horvatic 1934
Limoniastrion monopetali Pignatti 1952
Limonion algarvenso-lanceolati Costa et al. 2012
Plantaginion crassifoliae Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1952
Polypogonion subspathacei Gamisans 1990
Romuleo bulbocodii-Saginion (Wolff 1968) Mucina 2012
Salicornion fruticosae Br.-Bl. 1933
Spergularion macrorhizae Gamisans 1990
Spartinion glabrae Conard 1935
Suaedion verae (Rivas-Martínez, et al. 1990) Rivas-Martínez et al. 1999
Thero-Salicornion Br.-Bl. 1933;

Annex 1:
1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonising mud and sand
1320 Spartina swards (Spartinion maritimae)
1410 Mediterranean salt meadows (Juncetalia maritimi)
1420 Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs (Sarcocornetea fruticosi)
Emerald:
A2.5 Coastal saltmarshes and saline reedbeds
MAES:
Marine inlets and transitional waters
IUCN:
13.4 Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is representative for the climatic and biotic conditions in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, except for some data gaps in Croatia and Albania. Data sources: ART17, EVA.

Trends in Quantity:
The decrease is about -13% for EU over about the last 50 year (based on calculations from territorial data, covering circa 80% of the reported area). After 1960 the habitat has decreased about 20% in Spain, Portugal and Croatia, and about 10% in Italy, Greece and Bulgaria, mainly because of touristic development and drainage of wetlands. The reduction in Romania, France, Slovenia and Cyprus has been less or is more-or-less stable. A slight is expected to continue in Bulgaria, Spain, Portugal, France and probably Croatia and Greece, but the habitat area is more or less stable in Romania, Italy and Slovenia. Outside the EU28, only data from Albania (slight decrease) was reported.

Trends in Quality:
On average the decline in quality affects 23% of the extent of the habitat, with an intermediate severity of decline (51%). The trends have been calculated from the reported trends in quality (extent and severity) by Spain (25%), Portugal (30%), Bulgaria (30%), Italy (35%), Greece (3%) and Croatia (10%) in the territorial data. The severe decline is mostly caused by touristic developement, changes in hydraulic conditions, global climatic processes and pollution. For the EU28+ countries only a slight decrease with also slight severity was reported from Albania.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably more than 70%. The area of the habitat in the other Mediterranean and Black Sea countries, like Montenegro, Turkey, Northern-African countries, Ukraine and Russia is unknown, but it is probably less than in the Mediterranean countries of the European Union.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is widely distribution over the Mediteranean and Black Sea coastal region.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat on most sites occurs in relatively large areas.

Pressures and Threats:
The most important threats are (1) new urbanised areas and human habitations in or near coastal sites, because of touristic developement, (2) changes in the hydraulic conditions of salt marshes, (3) different kinds of pollution, (4) overgrazing, (5) industrial salt production, and (6) climatic change.

Conservation and Management:
The most important conservation measure is a strict protection of the salt marshes, including their hydraulic conditions, as the habitat is very sensitive to changes in flooding and hydrological functioning. Projects for the restoration of some habitat areas include restoring of the hydraulic conditions of salt marshes and regulation of salt production.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
1310: BLS U1, MED U1
1320: MED XX
1410: BLS U1, MED U2
1420: MED U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat has some capacity to recover naturally but it is dependent on geomorfological prosseses which occur relatively slow. It could be restored in some areas especially with the restoring of hydraulic conditions, management of salt production, ect.

Summary:
This salt marsh type can be found on fine sand and muddy coastal sediments around the more sheltered shores of the western Black Sea and Mediterranean, and extending around the SW Iberian coast into the Atlantic where tidal fluctuation is more pronounced. The vegetation is dominated by perennial and shrubby halophytes but the plant communities vary according to regional climate, the salinity (particularly in the Mediterranean with summer droughting) and sediment type.The habitat forms an important foraging and breeding habitat for wetland birds. Disturbance with tourism and other forms of coastal development, over-grazing and pollution are serious threats and the habitat needs strict protection, profiting from restoration of hydrologic functioning and regulation of salt production.

References:
Biondi E, Blasi C, Burrascano S, Casavecchia S, Copiz R, Del Vico E, Gadenz, D, Gigante D, Lasen C, Spampinato G, Venanzoni R. & Zivkovic L 2009. Manuale Italiano di interpretazione degli habitat della Direttiva 92/43/CEE (Italian Interpretation Manual of the 92/43/EEC Directive habitats).–URL: http://vnr.unipg.it/habitat/index.jsp
Donita N, Popescu A, Pauca-Comanescu M, Mihailescu S & Biris I 2005. Habitatele din România. Edit. TehnicÄƒ SilvicÄƒ, BucureÅŸti, 500 p.
Gussev, Ch. 2012. Mediterranean halophytic communities of tall rushes, sedges and grasses. In: Bisserkov V., Gussev, Ch., Tsoneva, S., Popov, V., Hibaum, G., Roussakova, V., Pandurski, I., Uzunov, J., Dimitrov, M. and Tzonev, R.(eds). Red Data Book of Bulgaria. Vol.3. Natural habitats.MOEW-BAS, Sofia.

Criterion A Text:
The decrease is -13% for EU28 over about the last 50 year, based on calculations from territorial data, covering circa 80% of the reported area. The habitat has decreased about 20% in Spain (now is 296 km2), 10% in Bulgaria (50 km2), 21% in Portugal (126 km2), 12.5% in Italy (now 377 km2), 10% in Greece (now 69 km2) and 20% in Croatia (2.7 km2) during the last 40 to 60 years. In total it was reduced from 1318 km2 to 1142 km2, about 13%. The decrease in Albania is only about 1%. There is no information on longer historical trends. In future a small further decline is expected, but quantitative data is not available.

Criterion B Text:
There are threatening processes and negative trends, but the habitat is too widely distributed to meet the criteria for B1, B2 or B3.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity are the weighted average calculated from reported data from Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Croatia, Greece, Cyprus, Slovenia, Bulgaria and Romania. The involved countries could not provide enough information on long historical or future trends in quality (CD2, CD3, C2, C3, and D2). The changes in quality are both abiotic (changes in hydarulic conditions, climatic changes) and biotic, so C/D1 has not been split into C1 and D1. As some countries reported ranges in extent, also a maximum extent has been calculated. This value is about 30%. The combined scores of 30% extent affected with a severity of 51% lead to the conclusion Near Threatened. The overall result may be slightly underestimated, as for the similar Annex I-habitats (1410, 1420) the overall conclusion for the MED region was U2.

Synthesis:
The reduction in quantity over the last 50 years is on average 13%. At the same time there is some quality decline (affecting 23-30% of the habitat with 51% severity). These trend values do not meet the thresholds for the different Red List criteria. However, the habitat type is assessed as Near Threatened (NT) because of the reduction in quality, meeting almost the thresholds for Vulnerable. The overall result may be slightly underestimated, as the most similar Annex I-habitats are in a relatively bad conservation status in the Mediterranean region.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat type is relatively diverse, with different types of wetlands and different sizes. A main division could be made between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea salt marshes, as the former ones are much more diverse, and the second one resemble

Contributors:
Habitat description: R. Tzonev
Territorial data: O. Aragnon, Z. Barina, J. Capelo, A. Carni, P. Dimopoulos, M. Fagaras, N. Juvan, C. Marceno, I. Prisco, Z. Škvorc
Working Group Coastal Habitats: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, H. Gardfjell, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
C3.5a Periodically exposed shore with stable, eutrophic sediments with pioneer or ephemeral vegetation

Habitat Description:
This habitat type includes periodically exposed shores of rivers or islets of accumulated sediment in river channels, drying-out oxbows, lakes and fishponds. The same habitat conditions also occur in disturbed habitats strongly affected by humans such as ditches and other wet places in villages or shallowly inundated and drying out arable land. However these anthropogenic habitats represents degradations of other habitat types and therefore do not deserve protection. Soils are muddy or sandy-muddy, usually with a high concentration of nutrients from natural sedimentation or from human input, for example on arable land and near agricultural farms.
Vegetation growing in such environments is dominated by annual herbs, mainly of the genera Bidens, Chenopodium and Persicaria. In the Mediterranean areas where the drying out is more rapid the vegetation in the same habitat can be dominated also by perennial stoloniferous species tolerant to prolonged flooding such as Cynodon dactylon, Polypogon viridis, Panicum repens, Paspalum spp.  Depending on the successional stage, soil nutrient status and the speed of the draw-down the vegetation can be short and open, or very dense and up to 1.5 m tall (especially if dominated by annual plants of the class Bidentetea). The stands are usually species-poor, often with a single dominant species, but can be also species-rich, especially in open, frequently disturbed stands on river shores.
In contrast to habitat C3.5b, this habitat occurs in environments with quick draw-down and drying out, or on more nutrient-rich sediments. In environments with slower draw-down, low-growing vegetation belonging to C3.5b can appear first and develop into tall-growing stands of C3.5a in a later successional stage.
Indicators of good quality:
Occurrence in natural environments such as shores of unregulated rivers or natural lakes

Occurrence of rare wetland species

Low incidence of neophytes

Low occurrence of shrubs


Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Alopecurus aequalis, Bidens cernuus, B. radiatus, B. tripartitus, Corrigiola littoralis, Echinochloa spp., Oxybasis chenopodioides (syn. Chenopodium chenopodioides), O. glauca (syn. Chenopodium glaucum), O. rubra (syn. Chenopodium rubrum), Persicaria dubia, P. foliosa, P. hydropiper, P. lapathifolia, P. minor, Potentilla supina, Pulicaria vulgaris, Cyperus distachyos, Cyperus fuscus, Cynodon dactylon, Polypogon viridis, Panicum repens, Ranunculus sceleratus, Rumex maritimus, Tephroseris palustris, Xanthium orientale subsp. italicum, Sisymbrium supinum. 
Exotic species naturalized: Abutilon theophrasti, Bidens connatus, B. frondosus, Paspalum dilatatum, P. disticum, Aster squamatus, Ludwigia peploides, Ludwigia grandiflora, Amorpha fruticosa.
Fauna
It can be used by pond terrapins for sun-bath (hermoregulation) during Summer
Birds: Ardeids (feeding grounds when flooded), breeding habitat Sterna albifrons, Sterna hirundo, Charadrius dubius, ducks
Insects: Insects present during the drawdown phase with e.g. Scarabidae (Hoplia caerulea) and Orthoptera (Tetrix spp)

Classification:
Annex 1:
3270 Rivers with muddy banks with Chenopodion rubri p. p. and Bidention p. p. vegetation;
3280 Constantly flowing Mediterranean rivers of the Paspalo-Agrostidion species and hanging curtains of Salix and Populus alba
3290 Intermittently flowing Mediterranean rivers of the Paspalo-Agrostidion;
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Bidention tripartitae Nordhagen ex Klika et Hadac 1944
Chenopodion rubri (Tx. in Poli et J. Tx. 1960) Hilbig et Jage 1972
Paspalo-Agrostion semiverticillati Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1952
Emerald:
--
MAES-2:
Rivers and lakes
IUCN:
5.6.  Seasonal/Intermittent Freshwater Lakes [over 8 ha]
5.8.  Seasonal/Intermittent Freshwater Marshes/Pools [under 8 ha]

Map Description:
Map is rather complete for EU28, but  incomplete for EU28+, especially in the Balkan. Data sources: Art17, EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
Present past trend in quantity is estimated trend in 14,2%. The data are based on eleven EU28 countries and three EU28+ countries. Future trend is mostly unknown but when estimated it is mostly as decreasing. Long historical trend in quantity is mostly unknown but when it is known it is higher than 50%.

Trends in Quality:
The extent of degradation is  32% from both EU 28 and EU28+ countries. The severity of degradation is 58% in the EU28 and 59% in the EU28+. The trends have been calculated from the reported trends in quality (extent and severity) by Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Hungary, Ireland, Italy (NO Sar, Sic), Netherlands, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Switzerland. No estimated future trend is provided for most of the countries. Long historical trend in quantity is also mostly unknown.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably, less than one third of the current distribution of the habitat-type lies within the EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
A reduction in extent has been reported but the overall range is probably stable.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is widespread through Europe.

Pressures and Threats:
In Europe, human induced changes in hydraulic conditions are the threat most extended which include landfill and land reclamation, canalisation, dykes, flooding modifications and management of aquatic and bank vegetation for drainage purposes. Other important causes of the threats affecting this habitat are water pollution and the occurence of invasive non-native plants. Other threats are related to agricultural activities (use of biocides, intensive grazing and abandonment of pastoral systems) and mining (sand and gravel extraction).

Conservation and Management:
The conservation and management of this habitat requires the existence of periodically exposed shores with stable sediments by maintaining the natural hydrographic conditions -occurence of unregulated rivers or natural lakes-. It is important to maintain also a low incidence of neophytes and occurence of shrubs.

Conservation Status:
3270: ALP U1, ATL U2, BLS U1, BOR U1, CON U1, MED U2, PAN U1, STE FV
3280: ALP XX, CON XX, MED U1
3290: MED U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat can easilly recover naturally its functionallity as soon as the modifications in river systems stop. If the severe damage is related to pollution, the habitat can be readily recovered when the water quality is restored.

Summary:
This habitat type occurs throughout lowland Europe on the periodically exposed shores of rivers or islets of accumulated sediment in river channels, drying-out oxbows, lakes and fishponds, ditches and flooded arable land. The soils are muddy or sandy-muddy, usually with a high concentration of nutrients from natural sedimentation or from human input, and the vegetation is dominated by annual nitrophiles or, in the Mediterranean refion, also including amphibious stoloniferous perennials. Depending on the successional stage, soil nutrient status and the speed of the draw-down the vegetation can be short and open, or very dense and tall.  The stands are usually species-poor, often with a single dominant species, but can be also species-rich, especially in open, frequently disturbed stands on river shores. Major pressures are related to the transformation of the hydrological conditions and water polllution and restoration is closely related to the recovery of natural hydrology and to management of water quality.

References:
Biondi E., Burrascano S., Casavecchia S., Copiz R., Del Vico E., Galdenzi D., Gigante D., Lasen C., Spampinato G., Venanzoni R., Zivkovic L., Blasi C., 2012. Diagnosis and syntaxonomic interpretation of Annex I Habitats (Dir. 92/43/ EEC) in Italy at the alliance level. Plant Sociology, 49 (1): 5-37.
Kiesslich, M., Dengler, J., & Berg, C. 2003. Die Gesellschaften der Bidentetea tripartitae Tx. et al. ex von Rochow 1951 in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern mit Anmerkungen zur Synsystematik und Nomenklatur der Klasse. Feddes Repertorium 114: 91–139.

Criterion A Text:
Overall an average trends of -14,2% from both EU28 and EU28+ countries over about 50 years were calculated. Information is based in 11 (EU28) and three (EU28+) countries. The habitat show the highest decreasing trends in central European countries such as Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia but the larger extensions in France and Italy.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO, AOO and number of locations are far beyond the thresholds for critera under B, and therefore subcriteria for B have not been assessed.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity are the weighted average calculated from reported data from 11 EU28 and three EU28+ countries. On average there is a decrease in quality affecting 32% of the surface with an average severity of 58% (EU28) and 59 (EU28+). These values lead to the category Near Threatened (NT). Most of the involved countries could not provide any information on long historical or future trends in quality (CD2, CD3, C2, C3, and D2). The changes in quality are both abiotic (waste, trampling) and biotic (invasive species, changes in species composition), so C/D1 has not been split into C1 and D1.

Synthesis:
The habitat type is assessed as Near Threatened (NT) due to large declines in quality (criteria C/D1) over the last 50 years. This is accompanied by a reduction of about 14% in area, a trend that does not lead to any threatened category.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: Milan Chytrý
Territorial data: D. Paternoster, D. Paelinckx, J.M. Couvreur, R. Tzonev, Škvorc, K. Šumberová, H. Mäemets, T. Kontula, A. Mikolajczak, A. Ssymank, P. Finck, U. Raths, U. Riecken, Z. Molnár, J. Brophy, E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, G. Buffa, L. Casella, C. Giancola, G. Giusso Del Galdo, D. Gigante, C. Marcenò, G. Pezzi, D. Viciani, V. RašomaviÄius, E. Weeda, J. Janssen, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Šibík, ÄŒarni/Juvan, J.A. Molina, E. von Wachenfeldt, R. Delarze, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, V. Matevski
Working Group Freshwater Habitats: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen


Habitat Type Name:
C2.5a Temperate temporary running watercourse

Habitat Description:
This habitat type includes temporary freshwater streams and rivers in the European temperate region. These water bodies are characterized by strong fluctuations in water level, which includes dry periods, alternating with long periods of running water. These fluctuations in water level are related to the level of the underlying water table and the amount of precipitation. In the United Kingdom the term ‘chalk streams’ is used to describe watercourses developing on chalk rock formations. This very soft and porous geological substrate acts as temporary reservoir. More than 80 % of the annual stream discharge originates from the aquifer in these chalk-based systems. The slow release of water from the aquifer provides a relatively stable hydrological regime despite the concentration of rainfalls in some seasons. Chalk streams can be subdivided into different hydrological categories. Only the winterbourne ones have a natural dry period each year and are considered part of the habitat C2.5a Temperate, temporary running waters. Chalk streams and rivers that never dry out are not included in this habitat. The seasonal cycle of wetting and drying results into characteristic plant communities that have adapted to these situation. The main channels are often dominated in spring by aquatic Ranunculus beds, consisting mainly of Ranunculus peltatus or R. penicillatus subsp. pseudofluitans. Note that Ranunculus fluitans is not typical of this habitat, because require more stable water level. Grasses and herbs are dominating the shores and accompanying marshes. Those include a number of annual species that appear in autumn after re-wetting of the shores. These temporary streams differ from Mediterranean temporary rivers mainly for the duration of the completely dry period (that is shorter) and for the absence of clearly Mediterranean floristic elements. If the dry period is prolonged and the hydrologic conditions very irregular these temporary streams could also scarcely vegetated.
England is usually considered to have the major part of properly defined ‘chalk streams’ of Europe. They are located in and down-stream of areas of outcropping chalk. It is unclear which other countries have similar streams, but surely temporary streams with similar hydrology they occur also in other karst areas of Europe and on substrates averagely permeable such as turbidite deposits rich in calcareous elements. In former times in United Kingdom, ‘chalk streams’ were connected to floodplains and wet meadows, representing systems with a high biodiversity and luxurious plant growth. Nowadays they are generally highly modified systems.
Indicators of good quality:
The periodical alternation of wet-and-dry regimes
The absence of heavy anthropogenic activities that can alter the hydrogeological system (e.g. water capitation and drainage, artificial shores for flood defence)
The absence of communities and species indicating an excessive nitrification or disturbance such as ruderal and exotic species
Water course connected to floodplains and wet meadows

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Alopecurus geniculatus, A. aequalis, Berula erecta, Callitriche spp., Helosciadium nodiflorum, Glyceria notata, G. fluitans, Ranunculus peltatus, R. penicillatus subsp. pseudofluitans, Mentha aquatica, Myosotis scorpioides, Nasturtium officinale, Veronica anagallis-aquatica, V. catenata, V. beccabunga.
Bryophytes: Drepanocladus spp., Fontinalis antipyretica, F. hypnoides, Rhynchostegium ripariodes, Warnstorfia spp.
Vertebrates: Salmo trutta, S. salar, Thymallus thymallus, Salamandrina terdigitata, Triturus cristatus, T. carnifex, T. alpestris, Rana spp., Pelophylax spp.
Macroinvertebrates: Potamon fluviatile, Austropotamobius pallipes. Benthic invertebrates can also be present if the dry period is not too long.

Classification:
EUNIS:
C2.5 Temporary running waters
EuroVegChecklist:
Glycerio-Sparganion Br.-Bl. et Sissingh in Boer 1942
Batrachion fluitantis Neuhäusl 1959
Ranunculion aquatilis Passarge 1964
Annex 1:
3260 Water courses of plain to montane levels with the Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion vegetation
Emerald:
C2.33 Mesotrophic vegetation of slow-flowing streams
MAES-2:
Fresh water, Rivers and lakes, Inland surface waters (water coursed and bodies)
IUCN:
5.2. Seasonal/Intermittent/Irregular Rivers/Streams/Creeks
WFD:
R-C6

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is related to permeable geological substrates of temperate areas of Europe, but because the habitat is not recognized as independent habitat everywhere it is not possible to say the exact distribution.

Map Description:
Map indicates only chalk rivers in England (from a downloaded file), and is incomplete for the rest of Europe due to lack of data. Data source: NAT.

Comment EU28:
Only few countries were able to provide numerical data. Difficult to distinguish this habitat from others

Comment EU28+:
Only few countries were able to provide numerical data. Difficult to distinguish this habitat from others

Trends in Quantity:
The trend in quantity is impossible to estimate because there are no sufficient data available about the present and past surface of the habitat. Only between 15-20% of the countries in which the habitat is expected to occur were able to provide quantitative data and they always stated that the number provided are very rough. However several countries reported according to expert assessment that the habitat is decreasing.

Trends in Quality:
The trend in quality is impossible to estimate because there are not sufficient data about the present and past surface of the habitat and its abiotic and biotic quality trend. However some countries (20% of those where the habitat is expected) reported according to expert assessment that the habitat quality is decreasing.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat could be present in every country where karst systems are extensively developed in temperate areas (excluded Mediterranean areas) of EU 28 and EU 28+. However real extension and distribution is not known because no data are available for most of the countries due to the difficulty in distinguishing this habitat type from others.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The natural range of the habitat is probably much higher than 50 000 Km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The geographical range of the habitat (EOO) is supposed to be quite extended.

Pressures and Threats:
The most frequent pressures consist of alteration of the morphology and hydrology of the streams through canalization, melioration, catchment of groundwater and extraction of sand and gravel. Eutrophication and in general pollution are other important pressures directly connected with agriculture and industrial activities in the stream basin. Climate change may represent a pressure for the habitat in some areas, contributing to alter the natural periodic regime of flooding and drying out. Fishing represents also a pressure in some streams, especially if outside protected areas.

Conservation and Management:
The conservation and management actions should include regulation of water abstraction, agricultural and industrial activities in the stream basin, fishing and extraction of send and gravel from the river bed. The restoration and improvement of the water quality and hydrological regime may be necessary in those cases where the habitat was damaged. The inclusion of some streams in protected areas could be useful to control and manage the water exploitation and other human activities such as fishing.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
3260: ALP U1, ATL U2, BLS U1, BOR U2, CON U1, MED U2, PAN U1, STE FV

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The capacity of this habitat to recover naturally differs according to the type of damage that the habitat has undergone. If the damage influences the hydrology and morphology of the stream or its basin the recovery time can be very long or even impossible. If the damage is represented by pollution of superficial or even ground- water, the habitat can be restored in a relatively short time (10 years, or even less) through intervention and complete removal of the causes of pollution.

Summary:
This habitat type includes temporary freshwater streams and rivers in the European temperate region, characterized by strong fluctuations in water level, which includes alternating dry and long periods of running water related to the level of the underlying water table and the amount of precipitation. Distinctive among these are the UK 'winterbournes'  developed on pervious chalk with a striking seasonal flora of batrachion Ranunculus spp., but their wider distribution but Europe is uncertain. Abstraction from chalk aquifers and climate change pose the major threats.

References:
Mainstone, C.P., 1999. Chalk rivers - nature conservation and management. Water Resource Centre, on behalf of English Nature and the Environment Agency, 91 pp.

Criterion A Text:
Despite the habitat occurs in 21 countries within EU 28 and 7 within EU 28+, most of them were not able to estimate past and current area of the habitat. Only Italy, Slovenia, Slovakia and Croatia reported values of the current area and stated that the habitat is decreasing in the last 50 years. According to the very few data available the habitat seems to be rather abundant in Italy and the calculated reduction is around 10% for the 4 countries mentioned before.

Criterion B Text:
Despite the EOO and AOO of this habitat are probably higher respectively than 50 000 Km2 and 50 Km2 there are no sufficient data available about decline of spatial extent, and abiotic or biotic quality.

Criterion C/D Text:
Only Slovenia, Croatia and Italy provided quantitative data for the assessment of the trend in quality, therefore the results of calculation of this trend were considered not possible to generalize to the whole of Europe. According to the calculation performed the extent of the degradation in these countries was around 25% with a severity of 30%.

Criterion E Text:
No data available for applying criterion E.

Synthesis:
The limited number and low quality of the data available have not allowed the use of any Red List criterion for the assessment. Only 15-20% (between 3 and 5) of the countries in which the habitat occurs were able to provide some quantitative or qualitative data. Most countries that were able to provide some kind of evaluation about the trend in quantity and quality stated that the habitat is declining and/or slightly damaged. The habitat has been assessed as Data Deficient (DD) due to the generalized lack of information and quantitative data.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Further investigations are necessary for this habitat type from all European countries.

Assessors:
F. Landucci, G. Arts, J.A. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen

Contributors:
Type description: G. Arts, F. Landucci
P. Ivanov, A. Ssymank, P. Finck, U. Raths, U. Riecken, E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, G. Buffa, L. Casella, D. Gigante, G. Pezzi, D. Viciani, A. Mikolajczak, J. Šibík, A. ÄŒarni, N. Juvan, J.A. Molina, Å½. Škvorc, V. Stupar, J. Rodwell


Habitat Type Name:
A1.1xx Turf algae on Pontic exposed lower mediolittoral rock

Habitat Description:
Exposed bedrock and boulders with algal turf cover in the lower mediolittoral zone. High and constant humidity, strong wave action and strong light are the dominant environmental factors for this habitat. In the Black Sea the lower mediolittoral rock is a narrow zone located in the lower part of the swash zone and is covered by water most of the time.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality, including: the presence of characteristic species and those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressures; and indices of habitat structure and function such as trophic index or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time. There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although some parameters may have been established in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
Urospora penicilliformis, Bangia atropurpurea, Nemalion helminthoides, Cladophora laetevirens, Feldmannia irregularis, Gelidium pusillum/Gelidium crinale, Ceramiales (Ceramium-Polysiphonia), Laurencia, Ceramium virgatum, Corallina spp. and Grateloupia dichotoma.

Classification:
EUNIS (2004):
Level 4. A1.1 Pontil littoral rock.
 
Annex 1:
1130 Estuaries
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
1170 Reefs
8330 Submerged or partially submerged sea caves
 
MAES:
Marine - Inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Littoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not Mapped
 
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Turf algae on Pontic exposed lower mediolittoral rock is not an outstanding example of the typical characteristics of the Black Sea.

Map Description:
There is insufficient data to produce a map of the distribution of this habitat. However the sub-basisns of which this habitat is likely to occur in have been indicated.

Comment EU28:
The habitat is known to occur in the Black Sea but there is insufficient data to accurately calculate EOO and AOO.

Comment EU28+:
The habitat is known to occur in the Black Sea but there is insufficient data to accurately calculate EOO and AOO.

Trends in Quantity:
There is insufficient data to accurately assess changes in quantity of the habitat

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient data to accurately assess changes in quality of the habitat

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
It is unknown how much of this habitat is hosted by the EU28 in the Black Sea.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is known to occur in the Black Sea but there is insufficient data to accurately calculate EOO and AOO. There is insufficient data to accurately assess whether the habitat has undergone a significant  decline (>25% of extent) in the

Justification of Restricted Area:
There is insufficient data and knowledge on this habitat to state whether it has a small natural range by reason of an intrinsically restricted area.

Pressures and Threats:
Eutrophication as a result of nutrient enrichment (N, P and organic matter) was the most significant historic pressure on the habitat. Since the 1990s this pressure has reduced due to tighter controls on pollution in the catchment of the Danube and other rivers which enter the north-west Black Sea. Whilst this pressure is now reduced it remains a threat in the current and future periods, especially along the coasts of non-EU countries surrounding the Black Sea which are not bound by legislation such as the Water Framework Directive  or Marine Strategy Framework Directive.
Coastal developments including the construction of marinas and slipways, sediment extraction, the widening and dredging of channels, creation of artificial beaches, road developments and sea defences. These activities may alter the hydrological regime which will in turn affect the character and viability of the habitat.

Conservation and Management:
Conservation and management measures which would benefit this habitat include measures to maintain physical and biological integrity, including pollution control and regulation; improvement of water quality management outside EU member states; development controls and contingency plans to be followed in the event of a major pollution incident; survey and monitoring programmes; enhanced legal protection for occurrences of the habitat and key species (e.g. additions to the EU Habitats Directive, establish a unified list of Black Sea species and habitats requiring conservation measures, etc.); and the designation of MPAs.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
There is insufficient data and knowledge of this habitat to assess its capacity to recover

Summary:
The habitat is present in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara on areas of exposed bedrock and boulders with algal turf cover in the lower mediolittoral zone. Eutrophication was the most significant historical threat to this habitat; although pressure from this has reduced recently, it remains a potential threat in future.  The habitat is also under threat from coastal development. Conservation and management measures which may benefit the habitat include: measures to maintain physical and biological integrity; improvement of water quality management in non-EU member states; development controls; contingency plans to be followed in the event of a major pollution incident; survey and monitoring programmes; and designation of MPAs.

References:
Afanasiev D.F., Korpakova I.G. 2008. Macrophytobenthos Russian Azov-Black Sea., Rostov-on-Don: FGUP AzNIIRH.
Anon. 2006. The northwestern part of the Black Sea: biology and ecology. Kiev: Naukova Dumka. 701pp.
Arnoldi, L. V. 1949. Materials on the quantitative study of the Black Sea zoobenthos. II Karkinitsky Bay (in Russian). Proceedings of the Sevastopol Biological Station: 8.
Bacescu, M. C., Muller G. I., Gomoiu, M-T. 1971. . Cercetari de ecologie bentica in Marea Neagra (analiza cantitativa, calitativa si comparata a faunei bentice pontice). Ecologie Marina vol. IV. Editura Academiei R.S.R., Bucuresti, 357 pp..
Bacescu M., 1977. Les biocenoses benthiques de la Mer Noire.  Biologie des eaux saumatres de la Mer Noire, Premiere partie: 128-134.
Bezuglova M.A. 2012. Seasonal changes in shellfish species of the storm emission of Odessa Bay. Scientific notes of the Ternopil National Pedagogical University. Series Biology 2(51): 33-36.
Borisenko Ð. Ðœ. 1946. Quantitative accounting of benthic fauna of the Tendra Bay, Kara Dag. 201p
Chernyakov D. A. 1995. Natural-aquatic landscape complexes of the Tendra and Egorlyk bays and monitoring of their state in Black Sea Biosphere Reserve
Culha, M. & Bat, L. 2010. Visible decline of limpet Patella caerulea Linnaeus, 1758, a biomonitor species, at the sinop peninsula and vicinity (the southern Black sea, Turkey). Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology 11(3): 1024-1029.
Çulha, M., Bat, L., Türk Çulha, S. & Çelik, M.Y. 2010. Benthic mollusk composition of some facies in the upper-infralittoral zone of the southern Black Sea, Turkey. Turkish Journal of Zoology 34: 523-532.
Dimitrova-Konaklieva, S. 2000. Flora of the Marine Algae of Bulgaria (Rhodophyta, Phaeophyta, Chlorophyta). Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Gönlügür Demirci, G. 2005. Sinop YarÄ±madasÄ±nÄ±n (Orta Karadeniz) Mollusca FaunasÄ±. Science and Engineering Journal of FÄ±rat University17(3): 565-572.
Kalugina-Gutnik A. A. 1970. The composition and distribution of benthic vegetation in the south-eastern part of the Black Sea. Ecological and morphological studies of benthic organisms. Kiev: Naukova Dumka, p. 185- 202.
Kalugina-Gutnik A. A. 1975. Phytobenthos of Black Sea, Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 275 p.
Kiseleva, M. I. 1981. Benthos of Black Sea mobile substrates. Naukova dumka, Kiev, pp 165.
Konsulov, A. 1998. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Bulgaria. Volume 5 of Black Sea environmental series. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.
Kopiy, V. G, Bondarenko, L. V. 2009. Benthos of sand habitat near splash zone of Karadag. Proc. of the V Intern. scient-pract. conf. (Simferopol): 294-298.
Kopiy, V. G. Bondarenko, L. V. 2012. The community of the macrozoobenthos of mediolittoral zone of Western Crimea. Biodiversity and sustainable development: Abstracts of the II Intern. scientific and practic Conf., Simferopol: 189-192.
Kostenko, N. S. 2003. Some trends of the succsecion of bottom vegatation in the Karadag area. Proc. Sciences. Rec. NaUKMA, Ser. "BÑ–ologÑ–ya and ekologÑ–ya": 429-432.
Lisovskaya O. A., Stepanyan O. V. 2009. A variety of coastal macroalgae Taman Peninsula (Russia) in summer., 19(4): 341-348.
Marinov, T. 1990. The zoobenthos from the Bulgarian Sector of the Black Sea. Publishing house of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, pp 195 (in Bulgarian).
Micu, D., Micu, S. 2006. Recent records and proposed IUCN status of Donacilla cornea (Poli, 1795) (Bivalvia: Veneroida: Mesodesmatidae) in the Romanian Black Sea. Cercet Mar 36: 117-132.
Micu D, Todorova V., 2007. A fresh look at the western Black Sea biodiversity. MarBEF Newsletter 7: 26-28.
 
Micu, D., Zaharia, T., Todorova, V., NiÅ£Äƒ, V. 2007. Romanian Marine Habitats of European Interest. Punct Ochit Publishers, ConstanÅ£a, Romania.
Micu, D. 2008. Open Sea and Tidal Areas. In: Gafta D. and Mountford J. O. (eds.) Natura 2000 Habitat Interpretation Manual for Romania. EU publication no. EuropeAid/121260/D/SV/RO, 101pp. ISBN 978-973-751-697-8.
Micu, D., Zaharia, T., Todorova, V. 2008. Natura 2000 habitat types from the Romanian Black Sea. In: Zaharia T, Micu D, Todorova V, Maximov V, NiÅ£Äƒ V. The development of an indicative ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas in Romania. Romart Design Publishing, Constanta, Romania.
Mokievskiy, O.B. 1949. Flora of the soil littoral substrate of the west coast of Crimea. Proceedings of the Institute of Oceanology: 124-159.
Moncheva. S., Todorova, V., (eds). 2013. Initial assessment of the marine environment. Article 8,  MSFD 2008/56/EC and NOOSMV (2010). 500p
Morozova-Vodyanitskaya N. V., 1959. Bottom vegetation of the Black Sea, Proceedings of the Sevastopol Biological Station, 11: 3 – 28.
Pereladov M.V., 2005. Modern status of the Black Sea Oyster population. Coastal hydrobiological investigations. VNIRO Proceedings, 144: 254-273.
Petranu, A. 1997. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Romania. Volume 4 of the Black Sea Environmental Series. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.
Prodanov, B., Kotsev, I., Keremedichiev, S., Todorova, V., Dimitrov, L. 2013. Initial assessment of the technogenic pressure in the mediolittoral zone of the bulgarian black sea coast. Second European SCGIS Conference “Conservation of Natural and Cultural Heritage for Sustainable Development: GIS-Based Approach”, 2013: 4-13.
Salomidi, M., Katsanevakis, S., Damalas, D., Mifsud, R., Todorova, V., Pipitone, C., Fernandez, T. V., Mirto, S., Galparsoro, I., Pascual, M., Borja, Á., Rabaut, M., Braeckman, U. 2010. Monitoring and Evaluation of Spatially Managed Areas. Catalogue of European seabed biotopes. Deliverable 1.2. Available at: http://www.mesma.org/default.asp?ZNT=S0T1O-1P24. (Accessed: 19/08/2015).
Terentyev, A. S. 2002. State of of the bottom community of the sandy bottom in Opuksky Nature Reserve. Reserves of Crimea. Biodiversity in the priority areas: 5 years after Gurzuf. / Materials of II scientific conference: 250-253.
Terentyev, A. S. 2011. Macrozoobenthos of coastal part of the Kerch Bay (summer, 2009). Ecology of cities and recreational areas. / All_Ukrainian Scientific Conference Proceedings of articles: 261-263.
Teyubova V. F, 2005. Features interannual dynamics species composition and structure macrophytobenthos in the Bay of Novorossiysk (Black sea), Ekologiya Morya 69:53 – 57.
Teyubova V. F. 2012. The diversity and ecological features macrophytobenthos the Russian sector of the Black Sea., Dissertation on competition degree of candidate of biological sciences, 280 pp.
Tkachenko, F. P., Kovtun O. O. 2014. Contemporary condition of seaweeds flora of Zmeiny  island  Ñostal  zone  (Black  Sea). Chornomors’k. bot. z. 10(1): 37-47.
Todorova, V., Panayotova, M. 2011. Black mussels and/or barnacle communities on mediolittoral rocks. Red book of Republic of Bulgaria, Vol. III, Natural habitats, Eds. BAS & MOEW. [ISBN 978-9549746-23-5].
Vershinin, A. 2007. Life in the Black Sea. Maccentr, Moscow, Russia.
Zaika V. E., Boltachev A. R., Zuev G. V., Kovalev A. V., Milchakova N. A., Sergeeva N. G. 2004. Floristic and faunistic changes in the Crimean Black Sea shelf after 1995 – 1998, Marine Ecological Journal, 3(2): 37-44.
Zaitsev, Y. P., Alexandrov, B. G. 1998. Black Sea Biological Diversity: Ukraine. Volume 7 of the Black Sea Environmental Series. United Nations Publications, New York, USA.

Criterion A Text:
There is insufficient data on changes in quantity of this habitat to undertake an assessment using criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
The precise extent of the habitat is unknown. Therefore there is insufficient data to produce EOO and AOO figures.

Criterion C/D Text:
Experts consider there to be insufficient data to conduct an assessment using criteria C/D.

Synthesis:
Detailed information on the abundance and extent of this habitat is lacking. Information on the quantity and quality of this habitat including historical or recent trends is unknown. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient.

Assessors:
S. Beal, G. Komakhidze, D. Micu, V. Mihneva, N. Milchakova, B. Yokes

Contributors:
S. Beal, G. Komakhidze, D. Micu, V. Mihneva, N. Milchakova, B. Yokes


Habitat Type Name:
E1.5a Iberian oromediterranean siliceous dry grassland

Habitat Description:
Dwarf grasslands growing in alpine (crioro) and upper subalpine (oro) environment at elevations above 1900 m in siliceous mountains in Mediterranean Iberian Peninsula, from the Cantabrian range in the NW to Sierra Nevada in the SE. Conditions are extreme in such altitudes, and include low temperatures, a short growing season in which solar irradiation is very high and rainfall can be low, combined with a high wind exposure. Strong wind sweeps the snow preventing from being accumulated. The removal of the protective snow layer in winter exacerbates drought by enhancing evaporation and also entails an important abrasion and mechanical pressure. Due to the extreme cold and dryness, those grasslands have been qualified as psychro-xerophilous. They occupy crests and slopes in which snow cover is shallow, avoiding depressions where it accumulates. Phenomena of cryoturbation and solifluxion are common in the soils, which are leptosols, lithosols or distric cambisols without histic, gleic and hydromorphic properties. The plants are dwarf or prostrated, with hard tissues to endure wind abrasion and drought. The grasses, particularly the Festuca species, have hard leaves with sclerenchyma bundles that give way to a low palatable or even indigestive pasture (revientabarrigas). Cover can be complete (ca 100%) to intermediate (40-50%) or low depending on extreme conditions, slope and solifluxion incidence. Succession towards tall vegetation types is prevented by extreme environmental conditions in the higher altitudes, where those grasslands are the Potential Natural Vegetation. Grazing, usually by sheep, is restricted to a short growing season and its impact used to be low.
The majority of the species are Iberian endemics, often restricted to one of the mountain groups and particularly abundant in Sierra Nevada.
Indicators of good quality:
The grassland should be dominated by grasses (Festuca sp. pl.), grass-like species (Luzula sp. pl.) and other herbaceous plants, having few ligneous plants.
A medium to high vegetation cover
Absence of nitrophilic species linked to human activities
No visible anthropic disturbances due to building activities, skying or intensive trampling

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Agrostis tileni, Androsace rioxana, Arenaria imbricata, Armeria bigerrensis, Armeria duriaei, Armeria losae, Armeria micriocephala, Armeria caespitosa, Artemisia granatensis, Dianthus langeanus, Erigeron frigidus, Eryngium glaciale, Festuca aragonensis, Festuca clementei, Festuca curvifolia, Festuca pseudeskia, Herniaria boissieri, Hieracium myriadenum, Hieracium vahlii, Jasione amethystina,  Jasione brevisepala, Jasione centralis, Koeleria caudata subsp. crassipes, Leontodon cantabricus, Leucanthemopsis flaveola, Leucanthemopsis cuneata, Leucanthemopsis pectinata, Luzula caespitosa, Luzula caespitosa subsp. iberica, Luzula hispanica, Minuartia bigerrensis, Minuartia juresii, Nevadensia purpurea, Potentilla nevadensis, Senecio boissieri, Sideritis glacialis, Silene elegans, Trisetum antoni-josephii, Trisetum glaciale, Silene elegans, Teesdaliopsis conferta, Veronica cantabrica.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.1 Mediterranean-montane grassland.
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Nevadension purpureae Quézel 1953
Minuartio bigerrensis-Festucion curvifoliae Rivas-Martínez corr. Rivas-Martínez et al. 1999
Teesdaliopsio confertae-Luzulion caespitosae Rivas-Martínez 1987
Annex 1:
6160 Oro-Iberian Festuca indigesta grassland.
Emerald:
E4.3 Acid alpine and subalpine grassland
MAES:
Terrestrial - grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The most genuine high mountain silicicolous mediterranean habitat, although it is also present in Cantabrian Range, which belongs to Atlantic region, but it represents a minimum proportion of the total area of this region.

Map Description:
Map is complete, but may give an overestimation. Data sources: Art17, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
Average Trend EU28: -0.3% over the last decades (since 1960-1974)
Average Trend EU28+: -0.3% over the last decades (since 1960-1974)
The surface of this habitat has only slightly decreased since the middle of the 20th century, from 379 km2 to 378 km2. Over the last 50 years a relative loss of area of less than 1% has been reported. Nevertheless, this decline could be higher, as Spain, that accounts for 99% ot the total extent, has estimated that the area has remained stable in the last decades, but without any quantitative data, while Portugal has reported a decreasing trend of 24%. We have not data on historical trends, but we think that the decrease has mainly happened in recent times, due to leisure activities in these Iberian high mountains. Regarding future trends, no data have been reported, although it is expected that the habitat will have at least slight if not moderate decline in the future.

Trends in Quality:
The area that has been subjected to degradation over the last decades (since 1960) is quite small, with a slight to moderate decrease in quality. The trends over larger historical periods are not known, neither the future trends. Recent degradation is related to leisure activities and climate change. The calculated extent of degradation in EU28 (and EU28+) is 3% with 40% severity of degradation. As regards future trends, it is expected a slight to moderate decrease in quality, according to the European assessment of Annex I habitat 6160 as U2.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The habitat only occurs in the Iberian Peninsula, as its names indicates, although other oromediterranean communities of the same class Festucetea indigestae are also present in North African Rif mountains. So, 100% of the current distribution lies within the EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO is larger than 50000 km2, and the habitat has not undergone an important decline during the last 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The range of this habitat is limited to the high summits (over 1900 m) of Iberian siliceous mountains, with a current estimated total area of 378 km2. So, although its EOO is quite large, 360700 km2, it has to be considered t

Pressures and Threats:
Grasslands included in this habitat are mainly threatened by leisure activities such as skiing and mountainering, which involve the construction of infrastructures and intensive trampling, which can increase erosion. Grazing, usually by sheep, is restricted to a short growing season and has not high impact. 
Climate change is another major threat, as higher temperatures involve the invasion of more competitive species from lower altitudes which replace the cold-adapted species typical of these oromediterranean grasslands.

Conservation and Management:
The conservation of this habitat involves the minimization of the impact of leisure activities and the disturbance they create in the ecosystem, as this disturbance can facilitate the arrival of ruderal species, which is also possible due to changing climatic conditions.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The extreme climatic conditions, with low temperatues and very dry conditions, make it very difficult the recovery of the habitat once it has been seriously damaged. If damage is related to soil erosion due to intense trampling, the habitat needs a long time to recover, which can be facilitated through human intervention. If damage is related to climate change and consequent invasion of species from lower altitudes, the diagnostic species will dissapear in the long term and thus future recovery of the habitat will not be possible.

Summary:
This habitat comprises grasslands of base-poor soils over siliceous bedrocks on the slopes and crests of high mountains in the Iberian Peninsula. There, the growing season is short, with harsh winters when strong winds blow the ground free of snow and leave the surface subject to deep cold which encourages the development of freeze-thaw features. The cover of vegetation is intermediate to complete,  dominated by prostrate or dwarf grasses and forbs, and includes many endemics.  Extreme conditions prevent succession and grazing, generally by sheep, is restricted to the brief summer and has little impact.  Loss of extent is small but there has been some decline in quality due to leisure infrastructure. The establishment of protected areas with restriction of damaging activities has been essential for the conservation of the habitat, which once destroyed is very difficult to recover.

References:
Herrero, L. and Llamas, F. 1987. Aportaciones al conocimiento de los pastizales de la alianza Minuartio-Festucion indigestae en la provincia de León. Lazaroa 7: 163-173.
Pulgar, I. and Izco, J. 2007. Characterization and classification of caespitose acidophilous pastures of South-west Europe (Festucetea indigestae class). Plant Biosystems 141(3): 1-21.
Rivas-Martínez, S., Fernández-González, F. & Sánchez-Mata, D. 1986. Datos sobre la vegetación del Sistema Central y Sierra Nevada. Opuscula Botanica Pharmaciae Complutensis 2: 3-136.
San Miguel, A. 2009. 6160 Pastos orófilos mediterráneos de Festuca indigesta. In: VV.AA., Bases ecológicas preliminares para la conservación de los tipos de hábitats de interés comunitario en España. Madrid: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino. 57 pp.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets. Almost 99% of the area occupied by the habitat lies in Spain, which has reported a stable trend over the last decades, although without quantitative data, while Portugal has reported a negative trend of 24%. This high difference among both estimations can be due to Portuguese occurrence being limited to Serra da Estrela, where the habitat occupies a small area of less than 4 km2 where many leisure activities concentrate. There is no information on longer historical trends neither in future trends. However the U2 assessment in future trends for EU under the Habitats Directive reports from 2013 suggests negative future trends, likely partly in quantity.

Criterion B Text:
Both EOO and AOO are quite large and do not meet criterion B. Sub-criteria were not evaluated because the values for EOO and AOO are well above the thresholds.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity of degradation are based on the data reported from Spain (98.9% of area in EU28), as quantitative data on trends in Portugal was missing. The changes in quality are both abiotic and biotic, so C/D1 has not been split into C1 and D1. The involved countries could not provide enough quantitative information on long historical or future trends in quality (C/D2, C/D3). However the U2 assessment in future trends in EU under the Habitats Directive reports from 2013 suggests negative future trends based on climate change, which at least can be considered as a negative future trend in abiotic conditions. We translate this to an assessment of C/D2 (and C2) of Near Threatened, as large areas (80-100%) will be effected with slight or higher severity (>20%). Possibly even the thresholds for Vulnerable (VU) may be met.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assigned to the category Near Threatened (NT). Over the last 50 years it has not substantially decreased in quantity nor in quality and its AOO and EOO are quite large. However, being restricted to the highest summits of siliceous mountains on the Iberian peninsula, it is assumed to suffer from climate change, and therefore the corresponding Annex 1 habitat 6160 has been assessed as Unfavourable Bad (U2) for its "future prospects". It means that a large part of the habitat (80-100%) will have at least a slight to moderate severe quality decline in the near future. For this reason, the habitat is considered (at least) Near Threatened under criterion C/D2.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Loidi
Territorial experts: J. Capelo, D. Espírito-Santo, J. Loidi
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
E5.2c Macaronesian thermophilous woodland fringe

Habitat Description:
Perennial herbaceous communities, humus-prone although not nitrophile, of thermophile half-shade, mesophytic natural hedges and clearings of macaronesian laurel-forests [G2.3]. This habitat type is found on forest micro-sites receiving a greater amount of radiation, compared to those typical of forest conditions, but still being dependent on forest litterfall defining somewhat mesotrophic conditions. The communities often have a heterogeneous physiognomy dominated by large-flowered herbs or forbs unlike deep-shade forest understory strata. The absence of grazing pressure and nitrogen inputs from large herbivores is also mandatory for its persistence.  Although it shares some floristic elements with continental Europe forest-fringe communities (E5.2a & b): e.g. Agrimonia eupatoria, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Origanum virens, Carex divulsa, Lathyrus sylvestris, Clinopodium vulgare, Carex muricata subsp. lamprocarpa, etc., this type exhibits a great wealth of macaronesian neoendemics. According to each archipelago’s endemicity character, three variants can be respectively set for Madeira, the Azores and Canary Islands. That of the Azores (Pericallion malvifoliae) is the most floristically deviant from that shared by Madeira and the Canaries (Ranunculo cortusifolii-Geranion canariensis). Azorean variant is enriched from catenal contact with Azorean endemic grasslands [E1.F: Topido azoricae-Holcetea rigidi vegetation class]. Apart from being typical of laurel forest fringes, Canarian versions of the habitat may be also found in lower altitude subhumid canarian pinewoods [G3.8] and Madeiran versions may be found in altitude tree-heath forests [G2.7]. Catenal contacts are those with forest understory, shady fern-moss communities [Polypodion serrati, Polypodietea] and macaronesian heath woody fringes [Andryalo-Ericetalia arboreae or Frangulo-Lauretalia azoricae].
Indicators of good quality:
Maximal coenotic saturation of communities in relation to local endemic taxa would be a criterion of habitat quality. Thus, versions of habitat having higher syntaxa elements alone [at order and class levels] are considered basal (pioneer) or disturbed versions with less conservation value. Also, as disturbance is set, invasion of the biotope by shrubs, tree-saplings or shady nitrogen-prone vegetation [Geranio purpureae-Cardaminetalia hirsutae, Chenopodietea] lessens the value of the habitat. The habitat type is a fragile one and depends on the critical maintenance of integrity of forest conditions for protection and organic matter, including clearing persistence.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants:
Madeira: Dactylorhiza foliosa, Geranium palmatum, Pericallis aurita, Ranunculus cortusifolius subsp. major, Rumex maderensis, Teucrium francoi, Viola paradoxa.
Azores: Ammi seubertianum, Ammi trifoliatum, Angelica lignescens, Chaerophyllum azoricum, Lactuca watsoniana, Pericallis malvifolia, Ranunculus cortusifolius subsp. cortusifolius.
Canary Islands: Geranium canariense, Myosotis latifolia, Pericallis appendiculata, Pericallis cruenta, Pericallis echinata, Pericallis tussilaginis, Pimpinella dendrotragium,  Ranunculus cortusifolius, Scrophularia smithii.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E5.2 Thermophile woodland fringes
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Ranunculo cortusifolii-Geranion canariensis Rivas-Mart. et al. 1993      
Pericallion malvifoliae F. Prieto et al. in F. Prieto et al. 2012
Annex 1:
-
Emerald:
-
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate forest

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is restricted to the Macaronesian region. Its diagnostic species are endemic of Macaronesian islands, and the habitat is linked to another typical Macaronesian vegetation type, the laurel forest.

Map Description:
Very few locations of this habitat have been mapped (from literature), and therefore mainly the potential distribution is given based on occurrence of Laurel forest. Data sources: Art17, LIT.

Trends in Quantity:
Only Portugal has reported data on the current area of the habitat, so only data from Portugal have been used for the calculation of trends in quantity. In Portuguese islands, the surface of this habitat has increased over the last 50 year from 55 to 61 km2 (an increase of 11%). Spain has reported a stable trend, but no quantitative data on area. Assuming that the habitat is similarly extended in the Canary islands as in Madeira and the Azores, the average trend is about +5%. No historical trend data exists, nor any information on future trends.

Trends in Quality:
More than a third of the area of the habitat has been subjected to moderate degradation over the last decades. The trends over larger historical periods are not known, neither the future trends. Recent degradation is related mainly to disturbance. The calculated extent of degradation in EU28 (and EU28+) is 35% with 50% severity of degradation.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
100%. The habitat only exists in Madeira, Canaray islands and Azores, so the distribution is restricted to the EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The range is relatively large, from the Canary Islands to the Azores. Besides, the habitat has not undergone an important decline over the last 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is restricted to the Canary islands, Madeira and Azores, and in these islands it only exists in small patches on the edge of humid forests (the laurel forests and moist pine forests).

Pressures and Threats:
Any kind of disturbance threatens this fragile habitat, which depends on the maintenance of the integrity of forest conditions, like shade, organic matter from litterfall, and the amount of radiation. Possible disturbances include grazing pressure and nitrogen inputs from large herbivores, and intensive trampling by tourists.

Conservation and Management:
The conservation of the forest is essential for this habitat, as well as limiting nitrogen input in the touristic paths that cross these forests. Grazing should also be limited and conifer planting (e.g. Cryptomeria japonica) avoided.

Conservation Status:
The habitat does not correspond to any Annex 1 type.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The removal of the forest causes a severe damage in the habitat, which will only be able to recover if the forest ecosystems is reconstructed again.

Summary:
This habitat comprises perennial herbaceous communities of the warm half-shade of woodland fringes and clearings of Macaronesian laurel-forests in the Canary Islands, Azores and Madeira. It is found as micro-sites in or along humid woodland edges, receiving a larger amount of radiation compared to the typical forest conditions, but in a similar way dependent on forest litterfall causing somewhat mesotrophic conditions. The habitat is threatened by disturbance and degradation of the woodland environment and, though the extent has remained stable over the last decades on the Canary Islands and even increased in quantity in the Portuguese islands, more than a third of the habitat has suffered a moderate decrease in quality over the last 50 years. The conservation of the laurel forest itself is also essential for this habitat, which once destroyed or severely damaged needs a long time to recover.

References:
Costa, J.C., Capelo J., Jardim, R., Sequeira, M., Espírito-Santo, D., Lousa, M., Fontinha, S., Aguiar, C. & Rivas-Martínez, S. 2004. Catálogo florístico e das comunidades vegetais da Madeira e Porto Santo. Quercetea 6: 61-185.
Fernández Prieto, J.R., Aguiar, C. & Dias, E. 2012. Description of some new syntaxa from the Azores archipelago. International Journal of Geobotanical Research 2: 111−116.
Rivas-Martínez, S., Wildpret, W., Del Arco, M., Rodríguez, O., Pérez de Paz, P.L., García-Gallo, A., Acebes-Ginovés, R., Díaz, T.E. & Fernández-González, F. 1993. Las comunidades vegetales de la Isla de Tenerife (Islas Canarias). Itinera Geobotanica 7: 169-374.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated from the territorial data provided for Portugal and Spain. There is no information on longer historical trends neither in future trends.

Criterion B Text:
No precise data on EOO and AOO is available as there is little data on this type. However, the distribution of Laurel forests provides an estimate of the distribution of this habitat, and based on that the EOO is much larger than 50000 km2, but the AOO is likely to be only slightly larger than 50. Combined with a negative trend in quality, criterion B2 is assessed as Near Threatened.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity of degradation are the values reported from Portugal only, as no quantitative data is known from the Canary Islands. The values lead to the assessment Near Threatened for criterion C/D1. The changes in quality are both abiotic and biotic, so C/D1 has not been split into C1 and D1.

Synthesis:
Because of the relatively small range combined with historical and continuing decline in quality, the habitat has been assigned to the category Near Threatened. The calculation of trend in quality was based only on Portuguese data, from where a reduction in quality of 35% of the area with moderate severity has been reported.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Subtypes have been described for Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores respectively, but it is not expected that any of these three subtypes is more threatened than the type as a whole.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Capelo
Territorial experts: J. Capelo, D. Espírito-Santo, J. Loidi
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev.


Habitat Type Name:
A5.32 Estuarine Atlantic sublittoral mud

Habitat Description:
This habitat comprises shallow sublittoral muds, extending from the extreme lower shore into the subtidal in variable salinity (estuarine) conditions, typically in the range of 18-35ppt and extending to a depth of 10 m. The habitat is found within estuaries which are naturally highly dynamic and rapidly changing systems, forming a complex mixture of many different habitat types.  These habitats do not exist in isolation, but rather have physical, chemical and biological links between them, for example in their hydrology, in sediment transport, in the transfer of nutrients and in the way mobile species move between them both seasonally and during single tidal cycles.
Turbidity and the mobility of the sediment are important influences on the associated marine communities which may be impoverished where this is high. There are typically fewer macrobenthic speices than in fully marine areas but potentially with a high abundance and biomass. Such habitats typically support communities characterised by oligochaetes, and polychaetes and have a  dominance of deposit feeders.  In lowered salinity conditions the sediments may include a proportion of coarser material, where the silt content is sufficient to yield a similar community to that found in more heterogeneous muds. Migratory flatfish such as plaice, dab and sole move in to estuaries to feed in these habtiats. 
Indicators of Quality:
Long term studies of many estuaries typically focusing on the physical, biological and chemical characteristics.  Indicators of quality of this habitat are frequently linked to those for the whole estuarine environment and therefore include morphological and physical characteristics, carrying capacity and water quality parameters. For the specific habitat, benthic indices, contaminant levels and productivity are some of the frequently used measures of quality.
Indices developed to assess the ecological status of coastal waters, including estuaries, according to the Water Framework Directive, include physical indicators, water quality indicators and measures of benthic diversity, species richness and abundance. The latter group, which is particularly relevant to benthic habitats, includes a Benthic Quality Index, an Infaunal Trophic Index, a Marine Biotic index based on ecological groups, and the Benthic Opportunistic Polychaetes/Amphipods Index.
Characteristic species:
Species that are typically found in this habitat vary depending on sediment characteristics. For example in locations where there is firm mud or clay Polydora ciliata and Corophium volutator, in muddy sediment Aphelochaeta marioni, Nephtys hombergii, Capitella capitata and Tubificoides spp.. Salinity is also a factor with Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, Tubifex tubifex and Gammarus spp. present in low salinity infralittoral muddy sediment and oligochaetes in variable or reduced salinity.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic shallow/infralittoral mud’ (A5.3).
 
Annex 1:
1130 Estuaries
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral mud
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow mud
 
IUCN:
9.6 Subtidal muddy

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Estuaries are a characteristic coastal habitat of the North East Atlantic. They are present in all the sub-basins of this regional sea, except for Macaronesia, and are common because of the numerous rivers which discharge to the sea in a region where there is a significant tidal range (over 12 m). The sublittoral areas are predominantly muddy sediments although there may be areas with sands and gravel and occasional rocky outcrops.

Trends in Quantity:
The habitat is very dynamic and some smaller yearly changes in area may be expected. Historically there have been dramatic changes in the extent of estuaries and their associated habitats with significant permanent loss, for example, as a result of the conversion of flood plains into polders in Germany and the Netherlands. Land claim has also been widespread, cumulative and piecemeal in the UK where it has affected at least 85% of British estuaries. Whilst the main areas affected have been intertidal, the loss of sublittoral estuarine mud habitat has also taken place. Impoundements in the Netherlands as part of the Delta works are well known examples and include the loss of the Grevelingen estuary which has been converted into an artificial brackish lagoon. Channel maintenance works, such as dykes, dredging and dredge spoil disposal continue to result in more piecemeal and localised reductions in the extent of this habitat. Because of these smaller scale continuing changes the current trend is considered to be decreasing.

Trends in Quality:
Long term studies of many estuaries typical focus on the physical, biological and chemical characteristics.  In Germany the physcial changes are on such a scale that they are estimated to have affected over 90% of the habitat to the extent where a "natural" hydrographic regime no longer exists for German North Sea estuaries. Many estuaries have also had a long history of receiving pollutants and conseqeuntly have suffered a significant historical decline in quality.
Nutrient loads have affected the quality of sublittoral communities in estuaries and although nutrient inputs have may have declined, the recovery of the habitat is not clear cut.  For example in the 1980s Danish coastal waters suffered severe nutrient enrichment.  Following reductions in nutrient inputs there remained substantial inter-annual variations in benthic macrofaunal biomass but over a period of 25 years, a decrease in filter feeders and increase in deposit feeders the latter appearing to have benefitted from the increasing stratification, despite an overall decrease of food availability. Hypoxia and anoxic events may still occur especially during warm and calm summer months.
Channel management practicies such as dredging to deepen access to ports within estuaries, and stabilisation with dykes are also known to affected the quality of this habitat but changing the sediment characteristics as well as the associated species. This is one of the consequence of changing  the regime from conditions of low physical sress to highly dynamic areas with increased current flow.  Regular dredging also alters the infauna communities.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
There is insufficient information to calculate an exact proportion but as the majority of this habitat is within the EU 28,  it is estimated to be of the order of 90%.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region with examples as far south as the Atlantic coast of southern Spain, along the western coasts of Ireland, around the British Isles, and on the mainland of northern Europe

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region with examples as far south as the Atlantic coast of southern Spain, along the western coasts of Ireland, around the British Isles, and on the mainland of northern Europe

Pressures and Threats:
This habitat is sensitive to substratum loss, mainly deriving from activities such as coastal protection, barrages, impoundment dredging and spoil disposal. Apart from direct habitat removal there can be indirect effects, through changes in sediment and hydrological regimes. In addition, dredging may increase water flow rate and wave exposure, which in turn will alter the sediment granulometric characteristics, washing away fine silts and muds, resulting in a possible change in community structure. Coastal construction and coast protection works can also cause an increase in water flow rate leading  shifts in infaunal community structure.
Many estuaries in the North East Atlantic have had a long history of receiving pollution for example as effluents from heavy industry.The combination of fine sediments and estuarine salinity gradients produce favourable conditions for the binding, deposition and accumulation of toxic contaminants within the muddy substrate. An accumulation of discharged toxic compounds, together with hydrocarbon contamination incidents, such as oil spills, can therefore have significant impacts on this habitat type, either immediately or by remobilisation after storms, dredging or changes in currents. Some oligochaete and polychaete species may be particularly susceptible to synthetic chemicals that bind to sediments, thus synthetic compound contamination would cause a decline in species richness. 
Nutrient enrichment/eutrophication has been a major pressures on estuarine habitats, including sublittoral muds. Whilst this may increase the food supply to the benthos it can also lead  to changes in species composition and numbers, increased biomass, a shift from k-selected to r-selected species, shifts in functional groups, changes in community structure and an impoverishment of benthic communities due to anoxia.

Conservation and Management:
Conservation and management schemes to benefit estuarine habitats have been applied at a number of scales ranging from whole estuary systems to small areas within an estuary. They include the removal of dykes, and water quality improvement programmes to reduce the risk of toxic contamination and to reduce nutrient inputs leading to eutrophication.
Spatial management including zoning of activities as part of Integrated Coastal Zone Management Schemes and Marine Protected Areas that cover the entire estuary complex, as well as  management of water quality throughout the watershed, are beneficial.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The capacity for this habitat to recover once severely damaged is unknown.

Summary:
This habitat consists of shallow sublittoral muds, extending from the extreme lower shore into the subtidal in variable salinity (estuarine) conditions, typically in the range of 18-35ppt and depths to 10 m. Turbidity and the mobility of the sediment are important influences on the associated marine communities which may be impoverished where this is high.
The most significant pressures and threats that the habitat faces include substratum loss, mainly deriving from activities such as coastal protection, barrages, impoundment and dredging. These activities could also change the abiotic conditions of the habitat such as wave exposure and water flow. Additionally, synthetic compound contamination would cause a decline in some characteristic species of the habitat, which are very intolerant to such toxic substances. Nutrient enrichment/eutrophication has been a major pressures on estuarine habitats, including sublittoral muds. Whilst this may increase the food supply to the benthos it can also lead  to changes in species composition and numbers, increased biomass, changes in community structure and an impoverishment of benthic communities due to anoxia.
Conservation and management schemes to benefit estuarine habitats have been applied at a number of scales ranging from whole estuary systems to small areas within an estuary. They include the removal of dykes, and water quality improvement programmes to reduce the risk of toxic contamination or nutrient inputs leading to eutrophication. Furthermore, spatial management, including zoning of activities as part of Integrated Coastal Zone Management Schemes and Marine Protected Areas, that cover the entire estuary complex, as well as water quality throughout the watershed.

References:
Borja, A., Franco, J. & Perez, V 2000. A Marine biotic index to establish the ecological quality of soft-bottom benthos within European estuarine and coastal environments. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 40(12):1100-1114.
Conley, D.J., Kass, H., Møhlenberg, F. et al. 2000. Characteristics of Danish Estuaries. Estuaries. 23(6):820-
837.
Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N. et al. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 04.05 JNCC. [online] Peterborough: ISBN 1 861 07561 8. Availiable at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/04_05_introduction.pdf. (Accessed: 30/08/2014).
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 05/01/2016).
MarLIN (Marine Life Information Network). 2015. MarLIN - The Marine Life Information Network. Available at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/speciesfullreview.php. (Accessed: 18/11/2015).
Meire, P., Ysebaert,, T., van Damme, S. et al.,  2005. The Scheldt estuary: a description of a changing ecosystem. Hydrobiologia. 540:1-11.
Muxika, I., Borga, A. & Bald, J. 2007. Using historical data, expert judgement and multivariate analysis in assessing reference conditions and benthic ecological status according to the European Water Framework Directive. Marine Pollution Bulletin 55:16-29.
Riemann, B., Carstensen, J., Dahl, K., et al., 2016. Recovery of Danish Coastal Ecosystems after reductions in nutrient loading: A Holistic Ecosystem Approach. Estuaries and Coasts. 39:82–97.

Criterion A Text:
There has been historical loss of the quantity of this habitat associated with land claim works, dredging and dyke construction on estuaries however the extent to which this has occurred cannot be quantified. This habitat is therefore assessed as Data Deficient under criteria A.

Criterion B Text:
TThis habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. Trends are unknown. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1(c) B2 (c) and B3 and Data Deficient for all other criteria.

Criterion C/D Text:
There has been historical decline in quality of this habitat associated with nutrient enrichment, and chemical contamination of sediments in estuaries. The scale of this is difficult to quantify however expert opinion is this is likely to have been fairly substantial. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Near Threatened under criteria C/D1, C/D3 for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Synthesis:
Survey information confirms that this habitat has a widespread distribution in the North East Atlantic. The precise extent is unknown however as EOO >50,000km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution.
There is a lack of data on trends, however this habitat has been assessed as Near Threatened for the EU 28 and EU 28+ because of historical reductions in quality which are believed to have been fairly substantial.  The main threats continue, although probably to a lesser extent, and there have been improvements in water quality which may have facilitated some recovery but there is insufficient information to predict future trends.

Contributors:
C. Karamita and the North East Atlantic Working Group: S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F. Otero, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun, N. Sanders.


Habitat Type Name:
A5.45 Atlantic lower circalittoral mixed sediment

Habitat Description:
This habitat comprises offshore (deep) fully saline circalittoral habitats with slightly muddy, mixed gravelly sand and stones or shell. It may cover large areas of the offshore continental shelf in depths ranging from 20-150m although there are relatively little data available on its precise extent. This and similar habitats are known to often be highly diverse supporting large numbers of infaunal polychaete and bivalve species. Epibenthos include sea anemones, sponges and sea urchins.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change overtime.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
 
Characteristic species:
Animal communities in this habitat are closely related to those found in offshore gravels and coarse sands and in some areas populations of the horse mussel Modiolus modiolus may develop (A5.622). Species which occur at a high frequency and/or are abundant or common in this habitat include Pseudomystides limbata, Eumida sanguinea, Nereiphylla lutea, Glycera lapidum Sphaerosyllis tetralix, Lumbrineris gracilis, Aonides paucibranchiata, Lanonice bahusinesis, Polydora caulleryi, Mediomastus fragilis, Hydroides norvegica, Anoplodactylus petiolatus, Leptochiton asellus, Glycymeris glycymeris, and Timoclea ovate. Characteristic species of epibenthos include Echinus acutus, Spatangus purpureus, Parazoanthus and Phakellia.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic circalittoral mixed sediment’ (A5.4).
 
Annex 1:
No relationship
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
Marine - Shelf
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral mixed sediments
Shelf sublittoral mixed sediment
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow coarse or mixed sediments
Shelf coarse or mixed sediments
 
IUCN:
9.4 Subtidal sandy
9.5 Subtidal sandy-mud

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
It is unknown whether this habitat presents an outstanding example of the typical characteristics of the North East Atlantic region.

Map Description:
There are insufficient data to provide a comprehensive and accurate map of the distribution of this habitat. This map has been generated using EMODnet data from modelled/surveyed records for the North East Atlantic (and supplemented with expert opinion where applicable) (EMODnet 2010). EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this is not the full distribution of the habitat.

Comment EU28:
The area estimate for this habitat has been derived from a synthesis of EUNIS seabed habitat geospatial information for the European Seas but is recognised as being an underestimate.

Trends in Quantity:
It is difficult to establish the quantity of this habitat as it often has a patchy distribution, grading into other soft sediment habitats, or interspersed amongst rocky areas. Even where the extent of this habitat or its associated biotopes has been mapped in detail (e.g. as part of resource assessments for sand and gravel extraction or within marine protected areas) there is a lack of information on trends.

Trends in Quality:
The substantial extent of the likely impact of bottom fishing gears on this habitat throughout the North East Atlantic region is apparent from many studies including analyses which have combined VMS data with sensitivity maps of benthic habitats and disturbance caused by surface abrasion for the continental shelf area of the North East Atlantic. Most recently, an analysis of the fishing intensity of EU trawlers (bottom otter, beam and mid-water trawls) using Automatic Identification System (AIS) ship tracking data over one year (2013/2014) shows high coverage in all European coastal waters and over the continental shelf. When combined with the modelled distribution of EUNIS marine habitat types it is possible to examine the extent of likely impact on a particular benthic habitat. For example, over this time period around 70% of the area of Atlantic circalittoral mixed sediment was subject to such fishing pressure in the North Sea and Celtic Sea.  Given that this is based on a single year of data and that this type of pressure has been taking place for decades it is likely to be an underestimate of the total area of this habitat affected by mobile demersal fishing gears.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat occurs in the EU 28+ (e.g. Norway, Isle of Man, Channel Islands). The percentage hosted by EU 28 is therefore less than 100% but there is insufficient information to establish the proportion.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region with records from the Atlantic coast of Spain, the Bay of Biscay and the western Channel.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region with records from the Atlantic coast of Spain, the Bay of Biscay and the western Channel.

Pressures and Threats:
This habitat is known to support a high abundance of infaunal polychaetes and bivalve species, which are extremely vulnerable to substratum loss, abrasion and physical disturbance from dredging and trawling activities. Mobile demersal fishing gears (such as otter trawls and beam trawls) disturb the upper layers of the sediment and damage both the associated epifauna and shallow infalunal communites. Associated increases in suspended sediments may also have a smothering effect on filter feeders. The degree of any damage will depend on the gear, frequency of use and species present. Frequent trawling may lead to a permanently altered community dominated by fast growing scavenger/predator species. 
The larval and embryonic stages of bivalves are particularly intolerant of heavy metal contamination. In addition, the communities associated with this habitat are very intolerant of hydrocarbons contamination as contact with oil increases energy expenditure and reduces feeding rates in bivalves, resulting in less energy available for growth and reproduction.

Conservation and Management:
Beneficial management measures for this habitat include the regulation of fishing methods and the control of other types of activities such as sand and gravel extraction which damage or disturb seabed communities. In addition, the control of chemical contaminants from discharges and spills may be important, particularly when this habitat occurs close to coasts and river/estuarine catchments.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The capacity for this habitat to recover once severly damaged is unknown.

Summary:
This type of offshore (deep) circalittoral habitat consists of slightly muddy mixed gravelly sand and stones, or shell. It is known to cover large areas of the offshore continental shelf in depths ranging from 20-150m. This and similar habitats are known to often be highly diverse supporting large numbers of infaunal polychaete and bivalve species. 
The infaunal communities of this habitat are extremely vulnerable to substratum loss, abrasion and physical disturbance from dredging and trawling activities. Such activity, which is known to degrade the quality of habitats associated with mixed substrates, has been widespread, for more than a century across the North East Atlantic region and particularly intensive in the North Sea and Celtic Sea.  Moreover, hydrocarbon or heavy metal contamination is known to be harmful to the larval and embryonic stages of bivalves species, disrupting feeding rates which subsequently reduces growth and reproductive success. The control and regulation of demersal fishing activity and sand and gravel extraction, which disturbs and damages the infaunal communities, will provide opportunities for habitat recovery.

References:
Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N. et al. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 04.05 JNCC. [online] Peterborough: ISBN 1 861 07561 8. Available at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/04_05_introduction.pdf. (Accessed: 30/08/2014).
Eigaard Ole R. et al. “Estimating seabed pressure from demersal trawls, seines, and dredges based on gear design and dimensions” ICES J. Mar. Sci., doi = 10.1093/icesjms/fsv099.
European Environment Agency. 2014. EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed: 22/08/2014). 
Hinz, H., Prieto, V & Kaser, M.J. 2009. Trawl disturbance on benthic communities: chronic effects and experimental predictions. Ecological Applications 19(3):761-773. 
ICES. 2011. Fisheries Measures in Protected Areas (FIMPAS) within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the Dutch part of the North Sea: areas outside the 12 nautical miles zone: Proposals, Dates, Venue. FIMPAS Steering Group. 35 pp.
MarLIN (Marine Life Information Network) .2015. MarLIN - The Marine Life Information Network. Available at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/speciesfullreview.php. (Accessed: 18/11/2015).
Sánchez, F., Serrano, A. and Gómez Ballesteros, M. 2009. Photogrammetric quantitative study of habitat and benthic communities of deep Cantabrian Sea hard grounds. Continental Shelf Research 29: 1174-1188.
Tempera, F., Atchoi, E., Amorim, P., Gomes-Pereira, J., and Gonçalves, J. 2013. Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Tempera, F. 2015. Bringing together harmonized EUNIS seabed habitat geospatial information for the European Seas. JRC Technical report. EUR 27237.
Vespe M, Gibin M, Alessandrini A, Natale F, Mazzarella F, & Osio G. in press. Mapping EU fishing activities using ship tracking data – accepted for publication, Journal of Maps – available at http://arxiv.org/pdf/1603.03826

Criterion A Text:
There is insufficient information to determine any overall trends in quantity of this habitat in the North East Atlantic. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Data Deficient under criterion A for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
There has been a decline in quality of this habitat due to disturbance of benthic communities resulting from mobile demersal fishing gears in particular. This trend is considered likely to continue however, the distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. Furthermore this habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region and as EOO >50,000 km2 and AOO >50, this exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Criterion C/D Text:
Most sedimentary benthic systems on the continental shelf of Europe have been modified by fishing activity in the last 100 years and this remains a significant pressure.  A recent analysis of the fishing intensity of EU trawlers (bottom otter, beam and mid-water trawls) using Automatic Identification System (AIS) ship tracking data over one year (2013/2014) shows high coverage in all European coastal waters and over the continental shelf. When combined with the modelled distribution of EUNIS marine habitat types it is possible to examine the extent of likely impact on a particular benthic habitat. For example, over this time period around 70% of Atlantic circalittoral mixed sediment was subject to such fishing pressure in the North Sea and Celtic Sea. Given that this is based on a single year of data and that this type of pressure has been taking place for decades it is likely to be an underestimate of the total area of this habitat which has been subject to such pressure.
Expert opinion is that there is likely to have been a substantial reduction in quality of this habitat - an intermediate decline in quality affecting more than 50% of this habitat in the North East Atlantic region although it is also possible that more than 30% has been subject to a severe decline. This will depend on factors such as the intensity and frequency of disturbance. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable under criteria C/D for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic. A combination of survey data and modelling indicates that it does not have a restricted geographical distribution nor occur in only a few locations in the North East Atlantic and therefore qualifies as Least Concern under criterion B. 
Most sedimentary benthic systems on the continental shelf of Europe have been modified by fishing activities, particularly bottom trawls and dredging, in the last 100 years and this habitat remains under fishing pressure. Disturbance of the substratum due to intensive fishing activities using bottom trawls or dredges can damage or modify infaunal communities, with burrowing echinoderms and bivalves being particularly vulnerable and therefore affect habitat quality. Data for 2103/2014 year has revealed that more than 70% of this habitat in the North Sea and Celtic Sea was subject to fishing pressure by bottom otter, beam and mid-water trawls. Given that this is based on a single year of data, and that this type of pressure has been taking place for decades, it is likely to be an underestimate of the total area of this habitat which has been subject to such pressure. Cumulative impacts are therefore also likely to have occurred.
Expert opinion is that there has been a substantial reduction in quality of this habitat, most likely an intermediate decline affecting more than 50% of its extent although it is clear that in some locations there has also been a severe decline. The severity will depend on factors such as the intensity and frequency of disturbance. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Vulnerable for both the EU 28 and EU 28+ because of both past and likely continuing declines in quality.

Assessors:
North East Atlantic Working Group: S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F.Otero-Ferrer, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun Tabraue, N. Sanders.

Contributors:
C. Karamita and  North East Atlantic Working Group: S. Gubbay, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters, N. Dankers, F.Otero-Ferrer, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter, R. Haroun Tabraue, N. Sanders.


Habitat Type Name:
A5.13: Faunal communities in Mediterranean infralittoral coarse sediment

Habitat Description:
This habitat is usually associated with the mouths of big rivers and streams, but it is also found as a fringe close to the rocky margins in bays and adjacent to coarse sandy beaches (4-25 m depth) in exposed areas subjected to strong unidirectional bottom currents and/or wave action. The high exposure that this habitat experiences prevents the accumulation of organic matter and fine sediments. Coarse sediments provide a wide range of interstitial spaces that constitute a suitable habitat for many invertebrates, mainly carnivores, omnivores and filter feeders.
Bivalves (Spisula subtruncata, Lucinella divaricata, and in some cases Loripes lucinalis) are the most representative group of this habitat type, but infaunal polychaetes are also very abundant (Aonides paucibranchiata, Spio decoratus, Protodorvillea kefersteini, Glycera tesselata, Lumbrinerides acuta, Aponuphis spp., Paradoneis armata and Mediomastus fragilis). The amphipod Siphonoecetes dellavallei is the most frequent crustacean, together with Apseudopsis latreilli, in areas close to Posidonia oceanica meadows. Nematodes are common and abundant mainly in bottoms shallower than 20 m depth. The polychaete Ditrupa arietina is rare at less than 10 m but it can be found within a wide variety of sediments, being more abundant at increasing proportions of coarse material. The bivalves Acanthocardia tuberculata and Callista chione are also characteristic species of this habitat, and constitute an important contribution to the total biomass. Fishes such as the Greater Weever (Trachinus draco), the Spanish Bream (Pagellus acarne), the Striped Seabream (Lithognathus mormyrus) and the Mediterranean Sand Eel (Gymnammodytes cicerelus) are also common in this habitat. A particular fauna assemblage of this habitat is composed by the Amphioxus or Lancelets (Branchiostoma lanceolatum). This “Amphioxus sands” normally extends on gravel and coarse sand with shell fragments.
Indicators of quality:                                                                                                                           
Most of the species included in the habitat description are indicators of good environmental quality. The majority of bivalves are very sensitive to environmental disturbances and changes in the density and structure of these communities might indicate a change on habitat quality.
In general, Branchiostoma lanceolatum communities show a negative correlation between the amphioxus presence and the organic matter content of the habitat, changing also the dominant species with the enrichment in the sediment.
Characteristic species:
Molluscs: Spisula subtruncata, Lucinella divaricata, Ruditapes decussatus, Acanthocardia tuberculata, Callista chione, Thracia papyracea, Caecum trachea, Chamelea gallina, Dosinia lupinus, Ensis minor, Tellina fabula, Loripes lucinalis.
Crustacea: Siphonoecetes dellvallei, Bathyporeia phaiophthalma, Apseudopsis latreilli, Lembos sp., Diogenes pugilator, Megaluropus massiliensis.
Nematoda: Aspidosiphon muelleri.
Annelida: Oligochaeta, Aonides puacibranchiata, Spio decoratus, Protodorvillea kefersteini, Goniadella galaica, Glycera tesselata, Paradoneis ilvana, Mediomastus fragilis, Lumbrinerides acuta, Ditrupa arietina, Chone duneri, Paradoneis armata, Syllis sp., Aponuphis bilineata, Marphysa bellii, Owenia fusiformis.
Cordata: Branchiostoma lanceolatum.
Fish: Trachinus draco, Pagellus acarne, Lithognathus mormyrus, Gymnammodytes cicerelus.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of Infralittoral coarse sediment (A5.1).
 
Annex 1:
1110 Sandbanks slightly covered with seawater all the time
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
 
MAES:
Marine - Coastal: 
Marine - inlets and transitional waters
 
MSFD:
Shallow Sublittoral sediment (coarse, sand, mud, mixed)
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow corase or mixed sediments.
 
IUCN:
9.3. Subtidal loose Rock/Pebbles/Gravel
 
Barcelona Convention:
III.3.1 Biocenosis of coarse sands and fine gravels mixed by the waves

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
It is unknown whether this habitat presents an outstanding example of the typical characteristics of the Mediterranean region.

Map Description:
This map has been generated using data based on EMODNet database and other publications for the western Mediterranean. EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this may not indicate the full distribution of the habitat.  Distribution information is available only from western Mediterranean.

Trends in Quantity:
Fluctuations in the number and biomass of the main fauna components of this habitat have been reported due to changes in the abiotic environment and the proximity of harbours such as those close to the Po River (Italy, North Adriatic) and to river flows from the Spanish Catalan coast (NW Mediterranean Sea), among others. At the French coast, the influence of the Rhone river during the 1980s also resulted in a dramatic change in the number and biomass of the communities of this habitat in the Gulf of Lions. However, there is currently no direct information on the geographic extent and the magnitude of these fluctuations.

Trends in Quality:
Changes in the abiotic environment (e.g. granulometry, flow rate and input of organic matter from rivers, siltation) have been reported to influence and change the composition of soft bottom communities from this habitat in the Gulf of Lion, as in other Mediterranean sites. Given the high environmental variability of the habitat, more information is needed on the causes of the observed changes and information on trends in quality.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This is a common habitat in the EU 28 and in the EU 28+, however the full extent of its distribution within EU waters is not fully known.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a natural range that exceeds 50,000 km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is widespread along the Mediterranean coast and the EOO > 50,000 km2.

Pressures and Threats:
The release into the coastal zone of untreated domestic, urban and industrial waters, together with fishing and dredging activities, can impact this habitat by changing the spatial composition of the populations inhabiting those areas. This habitat could also be affected by beach replenishment activities.

Conservation and Management:
There is a lack of information on this habitat type, therefore multiple biodiversity surveys on the distribution and trends (in different seasons and years) of this habitat in the Mediterranean are needed. In addition, monitoring data from different geographical regions will also assist in capturing differences that might occur within the same habitat. A better understanding of the effects of different pressures on the communities that live in this habitat, establishment of protected areas where this habitat occurs and better regulation of exploitation of natural and non-natural resources are also required.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
1110:  MMED XX
1160: MMED XX
Listed as endangered natural habitat type in the Resolution no. 4 (Council of Bern Convention, 1996): Sublittoral soft seabeds (code 11.22).

Summary:
Infralittoral coarse sediments have a widespread but fragmentary distribution around the Mediterranean Sea, predominantly on exposed coasts and the mouths of big rivers and streams. The habitat is subject to disturbance by wave action, the catchment area and complexity of rivers and rivers input, which determine species composition and abundance according to the different range of environmental conditions. It is characterised by a robust fauna (i.e. species that tolerate a certain change of environmental conditions) of infaunal polychaetes, amphipods, nematodes and bivalves.
Different pressures such as nutrient enrichment from untreated waters and pollution can affect this habitat. A better understanding of the effects of different pressures on the communities that live in this habitat, establishment of protected areas where this habitat occurs and better regulation of exploitation of natural and non-natural resources are also required.

References:
Antoniadou, C., Krestenitis, Y. and Chintiroglou, C. 2004. Structure of the "amphioxus sand" community in the Thermaikos Bay (Eastern Mediterranean). Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 13: 1122-1128.
Bakalem, A., Ruellet, T. and Dauvin, J. C., 2009. Benthic indices and ecological quality of shallow Algeria fine sand community. Ecological indicators 9: 395 – 408
Cosentino, A. and Giacobbe, S. 2008. Distribution and functional response of sublittoral soft bottom assemblages to sedimentary constraints. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79: 263-276.
Gremare, A., Amouroux, J. M. and Vetion, G., 1998a. Long-term comparison of macrobenthos within the soft bottoms of the Bay of Banyuls-sur-mer (Northwestern Mediterranean Sea). Journal of Sea Research 40: 281-302.
Gremare, A., Sardá, R., Medernach, L., Jordana, E., Pinedo, S., Amouroux, J. M., Martin, D., Nozais, C. and Charles, F., 1998. On the dramatic increase of Ditrupa arietina O.F. Muller (Annelida: Polychaeta) along the French and Spanish Catalan coasts. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf
Science 47: 447-457.
Guille, A. 1970. Bionomie benthique du plateau continental de la côte catalane française. II. Les communautés de la macrofaune. Vie Milieu 1B: 149-280.
Pinedo, S., Sardá, R. and Martín, D. 1992. Seasonal dynamics and structure of soft-bottom assemblages in Blanes Bay (northwest Mediterranean Sea). Publicaciones Especiales del Instituto Español de Oceanografía 22: 61-70.
Rota, E., Perra, G. and Focardi, S. 2009. The European lancelet Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas) as an indicator of environmental quality of Tuscan Archipielago (Western Mediterranean Sea). Chemistry and Ecology 25: 61-69.
Sardá, R., Pinedo, S. and Martin, D. 1999. Seasonal dynamics of macroinfaunal key species inhabiting shallow soft-bottoms in the Bay of Blanes (NW Mediterranean). Acta Oecologica 20: 315-326.
Sardá, R. Pinedo, S., Gremare, A. and Taboada, S. 2000. Changes in the dynamics of shallow sandy-bottom assemblages due to sand extraction in the Catalan Western Mediterranean Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57: 1446-1453.
Sardá, R. Serrano, L., Labrune, C., Gil, J., March, D., Amouroux, J-M., Taboada, S., Bonifàcio, P. and Grémare, A. 2014. Shallow water polychaete assemblages in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea and its possible use in the evaluation of good environmental state. Memoirs of Museum Victoria 71: 289-301.
Simonini, R., Ansaloni, I., Bonvicini Pagliai, A. M. and Prevedelli, D. 2004. Organic enrichment and structure of the macrozoobenthic community in the northern Adriatic Sea in an area facing Adige and Po mouths. ICES Journal of Marine Science 61: 871-881.

Criterion A Text:
Currently, there is no information available on the historical, present or future reduction of this habitat in the Mediterranean, as there are no inventories per country available. Therefore the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has a patchy distribution in the Mediterranean Sea, but it is estimated that both the EOO and the AOO largely exceed the thresholds for a threatened Category. Moreover, there is no information available on whether there is a continuing decline in the spatial extent or the biotic and abiotic quality, on whether a threatening process will likely cause continuing declines and on whether the habitat exists at very few locations. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
Since there are no studies available on the past and current conditions of this habitat type, it is not possible to calculate the reductions in abiotic and/or biotic quality, although changes have been reported in the abiotic conditions of this habitat at several sites. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available to estimate the probability of collapse of this habitat type. Therefore, it is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
This is a very poorly studied habitat type and only a few reports exist regarding its distribution at few localities. Moreover, data on trends in quality and quantity are lacking and there is almost no territorial data for most countries. Therefore, this habitat has been assessed as Data Deficient for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Habitat with presence of the “Amphioxus sand” community.


Habitat Description:
Deciduous or sometimes evergreen scrub dominated by bramble (Rubus spp) found in the Atlantic and Sub-Atlantic regions, and outside these regions in sites with a specific cool microclimate. Bramble scrub grows in ‘intermediate’ conditions (on not too wet or too dry soils, in not too warm or too cold climates), in intermediate succession stages or spatial transitions (from low herbaceous vegetation towards forest) and under a relatively stable microclimate. Most bramble species are not resistant towards grazing or mowing and also not towards flooding. The habitat contains – often species-rich – bramble scrubs of the open landscapes (intermediate succession stages), forest edges and some forest clear-cut areas. It also includes semi-natural structures of the cultural landscape dominated by brambles, like hedge rows, road verges and other structures separating parcels of agricultural land. In some cases they form spatial transitions to (higher) scrubs of the habitat F3.1e Temperate and submediterranean thorn scrub.
Within the habitat type, a main division can be made based on soil type. A first subtype contains bramble scrub of poor, sandy soils in north-western Europe, belonging to the class Lonicero-Rubetea plicati, alliance Lonicero-Rubion silvatici. A second subtype includes bramble scrub on nutrient richer or more base-rich soils, with a broader distribution in central and western Europe, and belonging to the class Rhamno-Prunetea, alliance Pruno spinosae-Rubion radulae. The latter subtype forms transitions towards habitat type E3.1e Temperate and submediterranean thorn scrub.
The type relates to inland (in general) long-lasting scrubs, relatively rich in bramble species. Temporary bramble communities on clear-cut forest areas on nutrient-rich or base-rich soils (alliance Athyrio filix-feminae-Rubion idaei) form a short-term succession stage towards Sambuco racemosae-Salicion capreae; both alliances together are considered part of habitat F3.1d Temperate woodland clearing scrub. Bramble scrubs in Atlantic dunes are considered part of type B1.6a Atlantic and Baltic coastal dune scrub. Also excluded from this habitat are the (sub)mediterranean bramble scrubs with Rubus ulmifolius as the main (and often only) species. Rubus ulmifolius has a broad ecology, and vegetation dominated by it in most situations is a mixture of Rubus ulmifolius with thorny shrubs of the class Rhamno-Prunetea (for example Rosa spp.). They are not bramble scrubs in a strict sense, and habitats of this type (alliance Pruno spinosae-Rubion ulmifolii), are considered as part of type F3.1e Temperate and submediterranean thorn scrub. Finally, also bramble scrubs dominated by non-European species, like Rubus armeniacus, are excluded.
Natural bramble scrubs as intermediate succession stages from grassland or heathland towards forest are restricted to Atlantic and Subatlantic lowlands and submontane areas of Central-Europe. Further eastwards (like in eastern Germany and the Czech Republic) brambles are mainly restricted to shaded conditions (forest understorey, forest edges), and the bramble habitat is more scattered in localities with specific conditions. Further northwards the number of brambles decreases quickly, with only a few species in southern Norway and south Sweden. Also southwards few species occur, and species-rich communities become rare. It is plausible that bramble scrubs have increased during the 20th century in parts of the distribution range, as in the 19th century the semi-natural landscape was much more open and more intensively grazed. On the other hand, during the 20th century severe losses will have happened in the cultural landscape, due to increasing parcel sizes (removal of hedges), eutrophication and invasion of non-native species (such as Prunus serotina).
Rubus in Europe is one of the most species-rich (and most complicated) genera in the temperate parts of Europe, with many taxa propagating by apomictic (non-sexual) mechanisms. In total, about 700 species have been described in Atlas Flora Europaeae, while about 1000 species are estimated to exist in Europe. Most of these species are considered to be relatively young, probably originating from a small set of relict species after the Ice Ages. The highest species richness of Rubus is found in Ireland, the United Kingdom, southern Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, northern France and the Czech Republic. Many of the Rubus species are regional endemics, giving this type a high importance from a biodiversity point of view. The most characteristic brambles in this Temperate bramble scrubs habitat are species of the Rubus subsection Rubus , which are deciduous. Especially the series rhamnifolii and discolores within this subsection, some of the most spiny groups of brambles, are well represented.
As well as for endemic bramble species, bramble scrubs are important for fauna, providing nectar for many insect groups when flowering, food for birds and mammals, and important hiding or nesting structures for many animal species.
Indicators of good quality:
Presence of regional endemic species
Absence of alien species
High diversity in Rubus species

Characteristic species:
Mentioned are characteristic widespread species in the distribution range  and regional endemics from (mainly) Germany and the Netherlands. In Ireland, England, France, Belgium, Denmark and the Czech republic, the species composition of the habitat type is little known. Therefore the list of regional endemic species will lack characteristic species from these countries.
Flora: Vascular plants: Rubus adpersus, Rubus amiantinus, Rubus ammobius, Rubus bertramii, Rubus bifrons, Rubus calvus, Rubus contractipes, Rubus discors, Rubus distractus, Rubus divaricatus, Rubus drenthicus, Rubus egregius, Rubus elegantispinosus, Rubus flexuosus, Rubus frederici, Rubus gelertii, Rubus geniculatus, Rubus glandithyrsos, Rubus grabowskii, Rubus gratus, Rubus hypomalacus, Rubus integribasis, Rubus laciniatus, Rubus laevicaulis, Rubus lasiandrus, Rubus lindleianus, Rubus macrophyllus, Rubus montanus, Rubus mucronulatus, Rubus mycrophyllus, Rubus nemoralis, Rubus nessensis, Rubus opacus, Rubus pallidus, Rubus passionis, Rubus phoenicacanthus, Rubus phyllostachys, Rubus plicatus, Rubus polyanthemus, Rubus praecox, Rubus pyramidalis, Rubus radula, Rubus raduloides, Rubus rubercadaver, Rubus rufescens, Rubus rudis, Rubus scissus, Rubus schlechtendalii, Rubus senticosus, Rubus silvaticus, Rubus sprengelii, Rubus steracanthos, Rubus sulcatus, Rubus taxandriae, Rubus trichanthus, Rubus vestitus, Rubus vigorosus, Rubus wahlenbergii, Rubus winteri.

Classification:
EUNIS:
F3.1 Temperate thickets and scrub
EuroVegChecklist:
Pruno spinosae-Rubion radulae Weber 1974
Lonicero-Rubion silvatici Tx. et Neumann ex Wittig 1977
Annex I:
No relationship
Emerald:
No relationship
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.4 Temperate shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is most widespread and abundant and has the highest species diversity in the Atlantic biogeographical region.

Map Description:
The map is very incomplete due to large data gaps. Data sources: EVA.

Trends in Quantity:
Two countries (Switzerland, UK) report a slight decrease, while in Belgium there may be a negative trend as well. Two countries (Bulgaria, Czech Republic) report an increase, and two countries (Spain, Hungary) a stable quantity. Seven countries do not report any data on trends in extent or distribution. The countries with the largest reported extent report respectively an increase (Czech Republic) and a decrease (UK). There is too little data to calculate European trends, because countries that probably have large extents (France, Ireland, Germany, Netherlands) could not provide any quantitative data.

Trends in Quality:
Few quantitative data are available about trends in quality. Several countries report no trend (stable quality). Those countries that report decreases indicate that the amount and severity of decrease in general is low. No European trend has been calculated due to too many data gaps, but overall it is assessed that there is a negative trend that affects a relatively small area (10%) with low severity of degradation.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
About 95%. The habitat mainly occurs in the Atlantic region. It becomes rare going in northern, eastern and southern direction.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat often occurs in small patches, but many such patches may be present in the landscape, especially in the Atlantic region.

Pressures and Threats:
The main causes of decrease are the removal of hedges and, more generally, the intensification of the agricultural landscape, including eutrophication. The type may form a succession stage in heathlands and grasslands after abandonment, but further succession leads to forest development. Also an increase of invasive shrubs and forestation may form threats.

Conservation and Management:
In most cases no management is needed, but in some situation removal of trees or alien invasive species may be needed to prevent deterioration of the habitat.

Conservation Status:
There is no related Annex I habitat type.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat is able to restore naturally, even within relatively short periods. However many species have only a very limited regional occurrence and by damaging the habitat some of them are in danger of becoming extinct without any possibility of restoration.

Summary:
This habitat comprises deciduous or sometimes evergreen subscrub dominated by various Rubus spp. mostly in the Atlantic and subatlantic regions, and elsewhere in locally cool conditions. It develops in ungrazed open landscapes and forest clear-cuts as part of succession, but can be a more or less persistent features of cultural landscapes such as forest margins, as hedgerows and along road verges.  There is great genetic diversity among the Rubus itself (including many endemics) and the associated floras can be varied. The most important threats are related to intensification of the rural landscape, like removal of hedges, eutrophication and spread of invasive species and the habitat is replaced by scrub and forest in succession. Maintaining the diversity and dynamism of lowland landscapes is essential for conservation.

References:
Haveman, R., J.H.J. Schaminée and A.H.F. Stortelder (1999). Lonicero-Rubetea plicati. In: Stortelder, A.H.F., Schaminée, J.H.J. & Hommel, P.W.F.M. (eds). De Vegetatie van Nederland. Deel 5, Plantengemeenschappen van ruigten, struwelen en bossen. Opulus Press, Uppsala/Leiden.
Kutto, A. Weber, H.E., Lampinen, R. and Sennikov, A.N. (2010, eds). Atlas Florae Europaeae. Distribution of Vascular Plants in Europe. 15. Rosaceae (Rubus). The Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe & Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki.
Weber, H.E. (1990). Übersicht der Brombeergebüsche der Pteridio-Rubetalia (Franguletea) und Prunetalia (Rhamno-Prunetea) in Westdeutschland mit grundsätzlichen Bemerkungen der Bedeutung der Vegetationsstruktur. Berichte der Reinhold-Tüxen Gesellschaft 9: 75-106.
Weber, H.E. (1997). Hecken und Gebüsche in den Kulturlandschaften Europas – Pflanzensociolgische Dokumentation als Basis für Schutzmassnahmen. Berichte der Reinhold-Tüxen Gesellschaft 9: 75-106.

Criterion A Text:
A negative trend of -6.1 (EU28+: -6.2) was calculated based on data of few countries, approximately covering less than 40% of the area, not including some of the countries in which the habitat is most widespread, like Germany, the Netherlands, France and Ireland. Because of these large data gaps the overall conclusion for A1 is DD (Data Deficient).

Criterion B Text:
The habitat is rather widespread throughout Europe. Rather precise EOO and AOO could not be calculated due to lack of distribution data. For sure however, the EOO is much larger than 50000, and the AOO much larger than 50.

Criterion C/D Text:
Nine out of 15 countries reported no or slight negative trends with 0-25% area affected. Several other countries did not provide any data. Overall it is assessed that less than 30% of the area is covered by data on both quantity and trends in quality. Making the assumption that the available data is representative for the majority of the range, it is most likely that trends in quality over the last 50 years are slight (in terms of severity), affecting less than 25% of the area. It is unclear whether negative trends are mainly abiotic or biotic.

Synthesis:
The data for assessment of trends in extent cover less than 40% of the area of the type. Although the provided data for some of the Red List criteria indicate a Least Concern status for the habitat, the overall conclusion is Data Deficient, because of the many knowledge gaps, especially for trends in quantity.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
As the species composition differs largely in different regions, due to many regional endemic Rubus species, many different subhabitats may be distinguished that need further examination. In general relatively stable, "old" stands (l

Contributors:
Type description: J. Janssen, R.-J. Bijlsma, R. Haveman
Territorial data: J.A. Campos, A. ÄŒarni, M. Chytrý, J-M. Couvreur, R. Delarze, M. Dimitrov, P. Finck, R. Haveman, J. Janssen, N. Juvan, G. Király, K.J. Kirby, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paelinckx, P. Perrin, U. Raths, U. Riecken, J. Šibík, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, A.
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Description:
In raised bogs, the water table level is elevated  by a few centimeters to metres above that of mineral rich ground water of surrounding areas and consequently there is an ombrotrophic (rain-fed) nutrient regime. The peat layer is often several metres thick and mainly composed of Sphagnum remains, highly water saturated with the water table close to the surface. High acidity (pH < 4.5) and low mineral content characterize the peat and pore water. Typically there is a pattern of alternation between micro  habitats (hummocks, lawns, carpets, hollows) that relate to topography, hydrology and peat formation. Hummock-hollow patterning can be irregular in flat plateau bogs, where hummocks remain low. In concentric and eccentric raised bog complexes, hummock-hollow patterning shows a distinct orientation perpendicular to the slope and water flow. Open water pools of secondary origin, i.e. developed on the peat after hummock ridge formation, are often found and provide important aquatic microhabitats. Raised bog habitats are most typical in central parts of raised bog complexes (EUNIS habitat X04) but they are also found in mixed complexes with D3.2 Aapa mires. Mire complex patterns may also be completely missing and often raised bog habitats are found as small undrained remnants of historically degraded bog complexes. Raised bogs differ from D1.2 Blanket bogs by being restricted to basins rather than blanketing over variable terrain. The lagg zones of raised bog complexes are considered under D2.2a Poor Fens.
Trees (Pinus sylvestris, Betula pubescens) are found only sparsely on hummocks and Sphagnum mosses dominate the ground layer of vegetation. In hummocks, Sphagnum fuscum is the most characteristic species, especially in boreal and continental areas. Other typical hummock species are S. rubellum, S. magellanicum, S. capillifolium, S. angustifolium, Dicranum bergeri  and Polytrichum strictum. Dwarf-shrub species Andromeda polifolia, Betula nana, Calluna vulgaris, Empetrum nigrum, Erica tetralix, Ledum palustre, Vaccinium microcarpon, V. oxycoccos, V. uliginosum are characteristic on hummocks, while only few herbs (Drosera rotundifolia, Rubus chamaemorus) and sedges (Carex pauciflora, Eriophorum vaginatum) are found. The wet hollows may have continuous carpets of Sphagnum or sometimes muddy peat surfaces void of mosses or with some cover of hepatics or Warnstorfia fluitans. Typical species include Sphagnum cuspidatum, S. balticum, S. jensenii, S. majus, S. tenellum among mosses and Carex limosa, Scheuchzeria palustris, Rhynchospora alba among vascular plants. Also forest mosses like Pleurozium schreberi, Hylocomium splendens, Dicranum polysetum and lichens like Cladonia spp. and Certraria islandica are found on hummocks.
Raised bogs are widely distributed from central European mountain areas to north-boreal regions, being most prominent in the hemi-boreal to south-boreal zones. The pattern of dominance and features of micro-habitat patterning vary over different climatic zonation belts.
Indicators of good quality:
Under natural conditions, the water table is close to surface in hollows and it can be readily observed in small pit dug in peat surface except during prolonged drought.
There is a gradual and logical continuum between dominant vegetation and the composition of recently (decades to centennial) formed peat, indicating that modern vegetation is forming typical Sphagnum peat.
Species composition differs between hummocks and hollows in a regionally characteristic way and there are no large patches of lichens or hummock mosses such as Polytrichum strictum in the hollows.
Ombrotrophic and acidophilic Sphagnum mosses and other characteristic species comprise substantial elements in vegetation.
Number of species or diversity indices of vegetation are not good indicators since raised bogs are naturally species poor habitats, while harboring unique species assemblages.
Occurrence of trees is limited to scattered individuals on hummocks. Drainage ditches are one main factor to cause decline of quality of raised bogs but their occurrence alone does not always indicate poor quality.

Characteristic species:
Flora: Vascular plants: Andromeda polifolia, Betula nana, Calluna vulgaris, Carex limosa, Carex pauciflora, Drosera rotundifolia, Empetrum nigrum, Erica tetralix, Eriophorum vaginatum, Ledum palustre, Melampyrum pratense, Pinus sylvestris, Rhynchospora alba, Rubus chamaemorus, Scheuchzeria palustris, Trichophorum cespitosum, Vaccinium microcarpon, Vaccinium oxycoccos, V. uliginosum, V. vitis-idaea
Mosses: Aulacomnium palustre, Cladopodiella fluitans, Calypogeia sphagnicola, Dicranum bergeri, Dicranum leioneuron, Dicranum polysetum, Dicranum scoparium, Gymnocolea inflata, Hylocomium splendens, Leucobryum glaucum, Mylia anomala, Odontochisma sphagni, Pleurozium schreberi, Polytrichum strictum, Sphagnum angustifolium, Sphagnum balticum, Sphagnum capillifolium, Sphagnum compactum, Sphagnum cuspidatum, Sphagnum rubellum, Sphagnum lindbergii, Sphagnum magellanicum, Sphagnum papillosum, Sphagnum fuscum, Sphagnum majus, Sphagnum jensenii, Sphagnum tenellum,  Warnstorfia fluitans
Lichens: Cetraria islandica, Cladonia rangiferina, Cladonia arbuscula, Cladonia stellaris, Cladonia stygia.
Fauna: Birds: Pluvialis apricaria, Grus grus, Tringa glareola, Tringa nebularia, Numenius arquata, Anthus pratensis, Motacilla flava, Tetrao tetrix, Vanellus vanellus
Insects: Boloria spp., Carsia sororiata, Coenonympha tullia, Colias palaeno, Pyrgus centaureae

Classification:
EUNIS:
D1 Raised and blanket bogs
EuroVegChecklist:
Oxycocco microcarpi-Empetrion hermaphroditi Nordhagen ex Du Rietz 1954
Sphagnion medii Kästner et Flössner 1933
Scheuchzerion palustris Nordhagen ex Tx. 1937 (hollows)
Oxycocco palustris-Ericion tetralicis Nordhagen ex Tx. 19
Annex I:
7110 Active raised bogs
(may include small parts of 7120 Degraded raised bogs still capable of natural regeneration)
Emerald:
X04 Raised bog complexes (partly)
MAES:
Wetlands
IUCN:
5.4.  Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Although relatively widespread, raised bogs have clear climate zonality with their main area in the hemi-boreal and south-boreal zones, while large parts of the distribution cover the Atlantic region as well. In addition, raised bogs occur in temperate mountain areas where boreal climate conditions prevail. Extra-zonal raised bogs are found only in specific local hydrological conditions. Furthermore, raised bogs have subtypes with climate-zonal distribution patterns.

Map Description:
The distribution centre of Raised bogs lies in Scandinavia, the Baltic and Atlantic regions, in the latter occurring together with Blanket and Valley bogs. In temperate mountains the habitat covers smaller areas, requiring high precipitation and flat relief (flat summits of Hercynian mountains, intermountain basins and surroundings of alpine lakes). In southern Europe it is virtually absent - individual reports often represents transitions to poor fens and wooded peatlands. The map is rather complete for EU28, except for northern Sweden, but with data gaps in Norway and the Balkan. Data sources: ART17, EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
The long-term historic trend in Central Europe has been devastating, the area is estimated to have declined by 90% within ca. 150 years in many countries, but losses have been less dramatic in Fennoscandia, where the major part of the existing extent is located. Recent past (50 years) reduction has been extensive everywhere, usually reported as between 30-50 %. A decrease of 5-10 % of the remaining area is most often projected for the future due mainly to peat extraction, while in some areas an increase is anticipated from restoration work.

Trends in Quality:
Habitat quality is decreasing in almost all countries with a European extent of degradation of 65% and calculated severity 42%.  Some countries, however, indicate potential increase in future thanks to restoration activities.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Raised bog habitats are widely distributed over boreal region e.g. in Russia, Canada, Alaska. In a coarse estimate, about 5-10 % of worldwide distribution may lie within the EU28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a wide distribution and despite the trend of decline in quantity, the EOO remains very wide.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has a wide distribution occurring where the necessary conditions are met.

Pressures and Threats:
Alteration of hydrology by ditching, canalization or water abstraction are the most common threats to raised bogs, with peat extraction and airborne pollution, specifically Nitrogen deposition next. Succession of communities and droughts imposed by climate warming also pose a threat. Minor factors reported were tourism, fragmentation and changes of grazing regime.

Conservation and Management:
Raised bogs are widely represented in conservation areas but many valuable sites are still without protection. Restoration of degraded bogs by blocking ditches and restoring the rain-fed water-table, has been conducted in many countries but upscaling of restoration activities is needed in order to gain more than marginal area and quality effects at the European scale. Peat extraction should be stopped in habitats that still have the natural defining features of raised bogs, in order to halt the reduction in extent.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
7110: ALP U1, ATL U2, BOR U2, CON U2, MAC U2, MED U2, PAN U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
There are good experiences of restoration by blocking drainage ditches. Importantly, Sphagnum mosses recover quickly and peat accumulation can start within about ten years if water levels are kept high. Natural recovery without intervention is slow. In high-domed Raised bogs sufficient blocking or damming of ditches can be especially difficult.

Summary:
Raised bogs, developed as rain-fed mire systems on flat or gently-sloping ground, with deep saturated acid peat are widely distributed across Europe but especially characteristic of the hemi-boreal and south boreal zones, occurring sometimes as part of wider raised bog or Aapa mire complexes, in other cases isolated in different landscapes. Surface patterning with hummocks, lawns, carpets and hollows is typical and there can also be secondary pools. Sphagna are typically dominant on the mire surface with distinctive contingents of dwarf-shrubs on the drier hummocks. Trees are scarce and confined to drier areas, though marginal bog woodland occurs in many sites. The main threat to raised bogs is posed by hydrological alteration by different drainage activities and peat extraction still threatens the habitat in some countries. Atmospheric pollution and nitrogen enrichment cause changes in the nutrient regime and vegetation. Long-term historic losses have been enormous and the decline in quantity and quality continues in most countries, though restoration efforts by blocking ditches and restoring the rain-fed water table have often been locally successful.

References:
Barthelmes, A., Couwenberg, J., Risager, M., Tegetmeyer, C., Joosten, H. 2015. Peatlands and Climate in a Ramsar context A Nordic-Baltic Perspective. TemaNord 2015: 544.
European Environment Agency. Habitats Directive Article 17 Reporting. 7110 Active raised bogs.
Fremstad, E. 1997. Vegetatsjonstyper in Norge. NINA Temahafte 12: 1-279.
Gunnarsson, U. amd Löfroth, M. 2009. Våtmarksinventeringen – resultat från 25 års inventeringar. Nationell slutrapport  för våtmarksinventeringen (VMI) i Sverige. NATURVÅRDSVERKET Rapport 5925.
Jeglum, J., Sandring, S., Christensen, P., Glimskär, A., Allard, A., Nilsson, L., Svensson, J. 2014. Main ecosystem characteristics and distribution of wetlands in boreal and alpine landscapes in the northern Sweden under climate change. In Grillo, O & Venora, G (eds.) Ecosystem Biodiversity, Intech, pp. 193-218.
Lindgaard, A. and Henriksen, S. (eds) 2011. The 2011 Norwegian Red List for Ecosystems and Habitat Types. Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, Trondheim.
Löfroth, M. 2001. Våtmarkernas situation och långsiktiga förändringar. K.Skogs-o.Lantbr.akad.Tidskr. 140:5.
Mendes, C. and Dias, E. 2013. Classification of Sphagnum peatlands in Azores - cases from Terceira Island. Suo 64: 147-163.

Criterion A Text:
Estimated limits of loss for the criterion A1 were 35-60% and for the criterion A3 58-69%. However, A3 is governed by Finland and Sweden where historic decline was estimated as 50% which is only a very coarse estimate (set a bit higher than recent decline) and the upper limit comes from assuming 60% loss, as more precise data was not provided. Without these two countries, the average A3 value would be 90%. Furthermore, data are missing from Belgium, Ireland and UK which have much bigger historic area losses than Nordic countries. Data from all Baltic countries are missing as well, which probably also have substantial historic losses. Historic trends were estimated on average for a 156 year period. Extending the same trend to the period after 1750 would indicate 75% historic decline of area. Therefore, historic losses in EU28 are probably more than 70% and assessment of Endangered (EN) status is given for the criterion A3. Data for historic decline was missing for Norway but it was probably similar to other Nordic countries and therefore EU28+ historical decline must be less than EU28. Assuming that the decline was slightly higher (10%) in historical times compared to recent times in Norway, the EU28+ historical decline amounts 56%, i.e. clearly below the EN threshold and, thus, Vulnerable (VU) status is assessed for EU28+.

Criterion B Text:
This is a widespread habitat type with both EOO and AOO. Therefore the B criterion is assessed as Least Concern (LC) despite the reported continuing decline and threatening processes.

Criterion C/D Text:
Reduction in quality was always reported as according to C/D rather than biotic and abiotic separately. Few countries indicated specific biotic quality effects, but they also indicated climate change as a threat, which includes abiotic aspects. C/D1 values are close to VU thresholds and Nordic countries estimates dominate the assessment. There were very few data entries on future and historic quality decline, so they could not be assessed. Most degradation is recent and historic quality changes are not likely to be critical. For EU28+ assessment, trends in Finland and Sweden were applied for Norwegian raised bog area, as data was not available for Norway. This results in closely the same figures and correspondingly the assessment Near Threatened (NT) is made for both EU28 and EU28+ by the criterion C/D1.

Criterion E Text:
There are many studies on raised bog ecology and recent changes, but assessment of the E criterion was not considered possible because of great ambiguity of possible collapse thresholds.

Synthesis:
Raised bog habitats have declined markedly in area in recent and historical past. Taking into account probable effects of deficiencies and time-scales of data provided, this habitat type results in the assessment Endangered (EN) under the criterion A3 in EU28 and in Vulnerable (VU) under the criteria A1 and A3 in EU28+. In the case of Raised bogs, historic reduction in area is relevant even today, although area reduction is generally considered to have ceased. Many populations of bog biota are nevertheless continuing to decline partly due to the historic legacy. Also, quality decline is widely reported but the C/D1 criterion only indicates Near Threatened (NT) status. Data were insufficient for separation between the C and D criteria, which are difficult to assess separately because they are strongly interlinked. Main abiotic threats include altered water level/hydrology and nitrogen deposition that affect biotic structures like abundance of trees.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
There are sub-types characteristic of different climate zones that require further examination. These include habitat types of plateau bog, concentric bog, excentric bog and northern reticulate bog complexes. Species composition of vegetation and micro

Contributors:
Type description: T. Tahvanainen
Territorial data: Alegro, L. Aunina, R. Bijlsma, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, R. Delarze, I. Diack, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, P. Frankard, M. Hájek, B. Hamill, J. Janssen, P. Jones, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, T. Kontula, E. Leibak, A. Mikolajczak, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, J.A. Molina, Zs. Molnár, B. Nygaard, J. Paal, D. Paternoster, P. Perrin, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, J. Šibík, Å½. Škvorc, D. Spray, A. Ssymank

Working Group Mires & bogs: C. Bita-Nicolae, M. Hájek, F. Jansen, T. Tahvanainen


Habitat Description:
This habitat type is consists of mires in the subarctic region with sporadic permafrost, most characteristically palsa mounds elevated by permafrost lenses. Palsa mires are found in the discontinuous permafrost zone of Iceland, northern Fennoscandia and arctic Russia, in areas with average annual temperature below -1 °C, with climatic optimum between -3 to -5 °C and annual precipitation below 450 mm. Typically, palsa mounds occur in groups in the central, thick-peated areas of palsa mires. Palsa mounds with dome shape are 10-100 m wide and 2-7m high. Other types are longitudinal string-form or extensive plateau- form palsas that reach 1-3 m high. Palsa mound summits are covered by Sphagnum peat that insulates heat so that the active layer of thaw is limited to 30-60 cm. The perennial frozen core of palsa mounds consists of frozen peat and silt material with ice lenses and crystals. Pounikko-type hummock ridges (D3.12) formed by seasonal frost action can be found particularly in marginal areas of palsa mires. Palsas can have different successional stages: young palsa formations have Sphagnum hummock vegetation, while older palsa mounds become dry and their exposed peat surfaces are subject to erosion that may lead to melting and partial collapse. Completely melted palsas result in the formation of thermokarst ponds.
The palsa mound summits provide dry microhabitats in palsa mires. Typical species growing on the palsa mounds include Dicranum elongatum, Polytrichum strictum, Empetrum nigrum and Rubus chamaemorus and many lichens.  Sides of palsa mounds often have abundant Betula nana, Ledum palustris and Eriophorum vaginatum. Palsa mires resemble D3.2 Aapa mires in hydrology and vegetation of the wet mire surfaces of areas between the palsa mounds, but regular hummock-string patterning is usually not found. Palsa mires are usually weakly minerotrophic and vegetation types overlap with those of D2.2a Poor fens and D2.3 Quaking mires. In the wet surfaces, Sphagnum lindbergii, S. riparium, Eriophorum angustifolium and Carex rotundata are typical dominant species.
Indicators of good quality:
Under natural conditions, water table is very close to peat surface in fen areas between palsa mounds and carpets of mosses prevail with abundance of characteristic sedges.
There are no ditches that drain or disconnect water flow (seepage or overland flow) in the palsa mire complex.
Only few of the palsa mounds are melting and collapsing, indicating natural dynamics, while most palsa mounds remain frozen with intact peat cover.
Seasonal thaw of permafrost, the so called active layer, may reach 50-60 cm, while substantially deeper active layer approaching 1-m depth indicates melting and collapse.

Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Andromeda polifolia, Betula nana, Carex diandra, Carex lapponica, Carex lasiocarpa,
Carex limosa, Carex livida, Carex magellanica ssp. irrigua, Carex rariflora, Carex rostrata, Carex rotundata, Carex vesicaria, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Dactylorhiza maculata, Drosera rotundifolia, Drosera longifolia, Empetrum nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum, Epilobium palustre, Eriophorum angustifolium, Eriophorum scheuchzerii, Eriophorum russeolum, Eriophorum vaginatum, Equisetum fluviatile, Huperzia selago, Juncus stygius, Ledum palustre, Menyanthes trifoliata, Pinguicula villosa, Potentilla palustris, Rubus chamaemorus, Salix lapponum, Tofieldia pusilla, Trichophorum alpinum, Trichophorum cespitosum, Vaccinium oxycoccos, Vaccinium microcarpum, Vaccinium myrtillus, Vaccinium vitis-idaea
Mosses: Aulacomnium turgidum, Dicranella cerviculata, Dicranum elongatum, Dicranum fuscescens, Dicranum majus, Dicranum scoparium, Pleurozium schreberi, Pohlia nutans, Sphagnum angustifolium, Sphagnum balticum, Sphagnum fallax, Sphagnum flexuosum,Sphagnum fuscum, Sphagnum jensenii, Sphagnum lindbergii, Sphagnum magellanicum, Sphagnum papillosum, Sphagnum pulchrum, Sphagnum riparium, Sphagnum subsecundum, Straminergon stramineum, Warnstorfia fluitans, Warnstorfia exannulata, Warnstorfia procera
Lichens: Alectoria spp., Bryocaulon nigricans, Cladonia spp.,  Coelocaulon aculeatum, Ochrolechia spp.
Fauna
Birds: Anthus pratensis, Calcarius lapponicus, Calidris alpina, Carduelis flammea, Gallinago gallinago, Lagopus lagopus,  Limicola falcinellus, Limosa lapponica Luscinia svecica, Motacilla flava, Phalaropus lobatus, Philomachus pugnax, Pluvialis apricaria, Tringa glareola

Classification:
EUNIS:
D3.1 Palsa mires
EuroVegChecklist (alliances)
Mosaic of different alliances
Annex 1:
7320 Palsa mires
Emerald:
D3.1 Palsa mires
MAES-2:
Wetlands
IUCN:
5.4.  Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat type as a very limited distribution in northernmost boreal (subarctic) zone in Fennoscandia, with low precipitation and mean annual temperature below -1 °C.

Map Description:
The habitat is confined to subarctic climates and hence occurs only in Nordic countries. The Swedish area consists of the total area of 1-hectare grids with occurrence of palsa mounds calculated from a detailed national inventory (Backe 2009). The Finnish habitat area was calculated by considering all habitat patterns with palsa mounds obtained from the spatial data base of Parks and Wildlife Finland (S. Tuominen, personal communication). The area reported from Finland to the Article 17 reporting (417 km2) is much larger but it comprises whole mire complexes and not just palsa mire habitat, as defined here. The map is complete for the EU28plus, except - possibly - for Iceland. Data sources: Art17, BOHN.
The habitat area reported for Finland in Article 17 reporting is 417 km2. This, however, includes whole mire complexes with palsa mounds and includes several other habitat types, mainly D3.2 Aapa mires.

Trends in Quantity:
The total area of palsa mires is declining because of melting of permafrost and consequent disappearance of palsa mounds and plateaus. There are indications of disappearance of palsas already during the historical time scale following warming after the Little Ice Age when many palsas probably were formed, but this decline has not been quantified. However, some studies give strong indication of declines in palsa area by ca. 50% for the past 50 years. Disappearance of many palsas has been observed in recent years, and a strongly decreasing trend is expected in the future as a result of climate warming.

Trends in Quality:
Palsa mires have a decreasing quality trend due to melting of permafrost. Increase of active layer, i.e. the depth from palsa surface to which thaw extends during summer, has increased in many areas, indicating increased probability of collapse. The recent declining trend is well documented in several studies and continuing decline is expected in the future.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Some 5-10% of palsa mires may be located in EU28 in a very rough estimate. Palsa mires occur in subarctic Russia, Alaska and Canada, in addition to the EU28+.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
While this habitat has experienced a strong decline, its range is still very wide in the EU 28 and even larger in the EU 28+.

Justification of Restricted Area:
Palsa mires are limited to northern boreal to subarctic alpine areas with low precipitation and mean annual temperature below -1 C.

Pressures and Threats:
The main pressure to palsa mires is climate change. Both increase of temperatures and precipitation will result into an increased melting of permafrost. Other minor pressures in some localities are off- road driving and trampling, which may increase erosion of palsa hummock surfaces. Additionally, ditching as a result of road construction may alter hydrological conditions. However, many palsa mires are found in wilderness areas with no apparent imminent pressure from land use.

Conservation and Management:
Only strong climate change mitigation measures can be considered as an effective approach to possibly limit the decline of palsa mires in the future. In some individual cases, restoration and improvement of hydrological regime can be needed. Establishing protection for palsa mires may increase the likelihood of persistence of at least some palsa mires in localities with the most favorable conditions.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
New palsas may form naturally if climate stays favourable or if climate cooling was expected.

Summary:
Palsa mire develops where thick peat is subject to sporadic permafrost in Iceland, northern Fennoscandia and arctic Russia where there is low precipitation and an annual mean temperature below -1oC.  The permafrost dynamics produce a typical patterning with palsa mounds 2-4m (sometimes 7m) high elevated in central thicker areas by permafrost lenses, the carpet of Sphagnum peat limiting the penetration of thaw, and a perennially frozen core of peat, silt and ice lenses beneath. Pounikko hummock ridges can be found in marginal areas subject to seasonal freezing and there are plateau-wide palsas and pounu string mires in the arctic. Intact palsa mounds show a patterning of weakly minerotrophic vegetation with different assemblages of mosses, herbs and sub-shrubs on their tops and sides. Old palsa mounds can become dry and erosion may lead to melting and collapse. Complete melting leaves behind thermokarst ponds. Palsa mires have experienced substantial decline and deterioration in recent years and, although these changes are not yet dramatic, all estimations indicate high probability of collapse as a result of climatic warming. Climate change mitigation measures are decisive to prevent the collapse of this habitat type.

References:
Arnalds, O. 2015. The Soils of Iceland. Springer, New York London. 137 p.
Backe, S. 2009. Kartering av Sveriges palsmyrar. Länsstyrelsens rapportserie nr 4/2014.
Borge A.F. 2015. Development and distribution of palsas in Finnmark, Norterh Norway, for the period 1950s to 2010s. Master thesis in Geosciences. Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo.
Bosiö, J. Degrading palsa mires in northern Europe. Presentation slides, http://www.lucci.lu.se/pdf/backaskog09/Bosio_Julia_P.pdf
Bosiö J., Johansson M., Callaghan T.V., Johansen B. & Christensen T.R. 2012. Future vegetation changes in thawing subarctic mires and implications for greenhouse gas exchange—a regional assessment. Climatic Change, DOI 10.1007/s10584-012-0445-1.
Christensen T.R., Johansson T., Åkerman H.J., Mastepanov M., Malmer N., Friborg T. & Crill P. 2004. Thawing sub-arctic permafrost: Effects on vegetation and methane emissions. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L04501, doi:10.1029/2003GL018680.
European Environment Agency. Habitats Directive Article 17 Reporting. 7320: Palsa mires.
Fronzek, S. 2013. Climate change and future distribution of palsa mires: ensemble modelling, probabilities and uncertainties. Monographs of the Boreal Environment Research No. 44.
Fronzek S., Carter T.R., Räisänen J., Ruokolainen L. & Luoto M. 2010. Applying probabilistic projections of climate change with impact models: a case study for sub-arctic palsa mires in Fennoscandia. Climatic Change 99: 515-534. DOI 10.1007/s10584-009-9679-y.
Fronzek S., Luoto M. & Carter T.R. 2006. Potential effect of climate change on the distribution of palsa mires in subarctic Fennoscandia. Climate Research, 32: 1-12.
Hofgaard A. Overvåking av palsmyr. NINA Rapport 42, 154, 257, 364, 476, 586 (several reports).
Johansson T., Malmer N., Crill P.A., Friborg T., Åkerman J.H., Mastepanov M. & Christensen T.R. 2006. Decadal vegetation changes in a northern peatland, greenhouse gas fluxes and net radiative forcing. Global Change Biology, 12: 2352-2369.
Karlgård J. 2008. Degrading palsa mires in northern Europe: Changing vegetation in an altering climate and its potential impact on greenhouse gas fluxes. Geobiosphere Science Center, Lund University, Seminar Series nr 154.
Kumpula T. 2015. (Personal communication on analysis of palsa changes in Finnish Lapland based on aerial images) University of Eastern Finland.
Luoto M., Fronzek S. & Zuidhoff F.S. 2004. Spatial modelling of palsa mires in relation to climate in northern Europe. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 29: 1373-1387.
Luoto M. & Seppälä M. 2003. Thermokarst ponds as indicators of the former distribution of palsas in Finnish Lapland. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 14: 19-27.
Løbersli E. 2010. Palsa monitoring in Norway. Seminar Sigtuna 27-28.10.2010. http://www.myrar.se/docs/sem2010/Palsa_monitoring_in_Norway-sigtuna_27-28oktober_2010-else_%20lobersli.pdf
Saemundsson T., Arnalds O., Kneisel C., Jonsson H.P. & Decaulne A. 2012. The Orravatnsrustir palsa site in Central Iceland—Palsas in an Aeolian sedimentation environment. Geomorphology 167-168: 13-20.
Sannel, A. B. K., Hugelius, G., Jansson, P. & Kuhry, P. 2015. Permafrost Warming in a Subarctic Peatland – Which Meteorological Controls are Most Important? Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, doi: 10.1002/ppp.1862.
Swindles G.T., Morris P.J., Mullan D., Watson E.J., Turner E., Roland T.P., Amesbury M.J., Kokfelt U., Schoning K., Pratte S., Gallego-Sala A., Charman D.J., Sanderson N., Garneau M., Carrivick J.L, Woulds C., Holden J., Parry L. & Galloway J.M. 2015. The long-term fate of permafrost peatlnds under rapid climate warming. Scientific Reports, 5: 17951, DOI: 10.1038/srep17951.
Zuidhodd, F.S. & Kolstrup, E. 2000. Changes in palsa distribution in relation to climate change in Laivadalen, northern Sweden, especially 1960-1997. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 11: 55-69.
Åkerman, H.J. & Johansson, M. 2008. Thawing permafrost and thicker active layers in sub-arctic Sweden. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 19: 279-292.

Criterion A Text:
Based on literature review and unpublished data, an overall decline of 40% in the EU 28 and of 44% in the EU 28+ has been calculated for the past 50 years, and thus the habitat qualifies as Vulnerable under Criterion A. There is no sufficient data available to calculate historic declines, while future declines are assessed in more detail under E criterion.
The decrease by ca. 40% of palsa mire habitats in the EU 28 and of 44% in the EU 28+ (inferred from palsa mound area, thermokarst area or habitat area as one hectare grid cells with palsas) is estimated based on several studies: Luoto and Seppälä (2003) found in a Finnish study area that the former distribution of palsas was about three times larger than the present area, based on thermokarst pond occurrence, but part of this change has probably taken part earlier than during the past 50 years. T. Kumpula (unpublished data, pers. comm. 2015) compared aerial images of Nierivuoma palsa complex in Finland with 4.6 km2 cover and found 48% decrease of 1 Ha grid cells with palsas. In Sweden, Zuidhoff and Kollstrup (2000) found 50% decrease of palsa area in Laivadalen, while Christensen et al. (2004) found a 36% decrease of (palsa) hummock area in Stordalen. Finally, Borge (2015) found a 33%, 48% and 71% decrease of palsa area in three separate study areas in Finnmark, northern Norway, indicating slightly higher rate of change than in Finland and Sweden. There was no data available of palsa mire area changes in Iceland. All references of decrease of palsa mire area are limited in areal cover.

Criterion B Text:
The values of EOO and AOO exceed the thresholds for a threatened Category, and therefore the habitat type is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B. However, a continuing decline in spatial extent and abiotic and biotic quality has occurred, and climate change is expected to cause a continuing decline in the habitat type within the next 20 years.

Criterion C/D Text:
An increase of the active layer depth (i.e. the depth to which permafrost melts during summer) has been reported during recent decades in many areas (Johansson et al. 2006, Åkerman and Johansson 2008, Saemundsson et al. 2012, T. Kumpula unpublished data), and ground temperatures have also been rising (Sannel et al. 2015). These changes are interpreted as "slight" relative severity (more than 30%) of quality, since habitat structure does not necessarily change much as long as the palsa mounds do persist. The extent is considered to be very wide, as the pressure is caused by global climate change and will likely affect most of its extent (90% or more). Thus, this habitat type qualifies as Vulnerable under Criterion C1, as the melting of permafrost is considered an abiotic factor. Biological communities respond to melting and collapse of palsa mounds, and thus the habitat is assessed as Vulnerable also under Criterion C/D1, while there is no information available to separately apply D criteria. There is also no direct information available of future and historical reductions in quality.

Criterion E Text:
Palsa mires are assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) under Criterion E since the probability of collapse within the next 50 years is estimated to be over 50%. The quantitative analyses performed in this assessment are shortly listed below, divided into modeling studies and extrapolations of recent trends.
The following studies incorporating climate modelling and spatial distribution of palsa mires indicate high probability of collapse within next 50 years:
Fronzek et al. (2010): More than 50% of simulations with different climate models indicated 100% collapse in 2041-2070. Median estimates of simulations with three different climate models indicated that less than 10% of area suitable for palsa mires is remaining in 2060s.
Fronzek et al. (2006): Different climate models and two emission scenarios (A2, B2) predicted less than 5% of area suitable for palsa mires remaining in 2070-2099.
Bosiö et al. (2012): Modelling of the climate-vegetational relationship indicated 97% reduction in dry hummock areas of palsas by 2041-2060.

Extrapolation (linear) of recent trends in active layer depth, palsa height, ground temperature and palsa occurence indicate a collapse with high probability within next 50 years:
Increasing active layer depth precedes the complete melting and disappearance of palsa permafrost and negative correlation is expected between active layer depth and palsa height. Mean active layer depth (cm) predicts palsa height (cm) in a linear model [Height (cm) = -4.39 * Active layer (cm) + 491] with R2 = 0.500 (data from Karlgård 2008, Bosiö nd). Applying this rough model indicates 112 cm threshold for zero height of palsa mound, which could be interpreted as a collapse threshold. Datasets of active layer monitoring (Åkerman and Johansson 2008, Johansson et al. 2006, Saemundsson et al. 2012) all show increased depth within recent decades (with the oldest data starting from mid-1970s). Linear extrapolation of trends (in all 11 data series) to the future indicate the probability of collapse of ca. 80%. In this calculation, average and standard deviation of predicted depth in 2065 are used to estimate cumulative probability of normal distribution for values higher than the 112 cm threshold.
Decreasing area of palsa mounds has been observed in Iceland by Saemundsson et al. (2012) from 2004 to 2010 in measurements of eight palsa mounds. The data indicates complete disappearance with 74% probability by 2065 of permafrost of these palsa mounds, when linear trend is extrapolated to the future. In this calculation, average and standard deviation of predicted surface area in 2065 are used to estimate cumulative probability of normal distribution for values smaller than zero area.
Decrease of total area of 1 Ha grid cells with palsa mounds from 250 Ha in 1960 to 131 Ha in 2010 (48%) was observed by Timo Kumpula (unpublished data, 2015) in the Nierivuoma palsa mire (one of the biggest palsa mires in Finland) from detailed interpretation of aerial images. Linear extrapolation of this trend to the future indicates complete disappearance by 2065.
Zuidhodd and Kolstrup (2000) reported maximum height of six palsa mounds in 1960-1967 and 1997. The linear model indicates a decrease of height by 4 cm per year. Applying prediction standard error, a probability of 97% of collapse by 2065 is indicated. In this calculation, predicted height in 2065 and standard error of prediction are used to estimate cumulative probability of normal distribution for (predicted) values smaller than zero height in 2065.
Sannel et al. (2015) published measurements of annual mean ground temperature in palsa permafrost at 1 and 2 m depths during 2006-2013. These data showed a fluctuating pattern connected to climatic circulation with slight rising trends of 0.02-0.03 degrees per year. Extrapolation of these trends indicate 94 to >99% probability of warming above zero Celsius by 2065. In this calculation, predicted temperature in 2065 and standard error of prediction are used to estimate cumulative probability of normal distribution for (predicted) values higher than zero Celsius in 2065.
Borge (2015) used aerial images from late 1950s to 2010s to reveal changes in palsa mire area in Finnmark, northern Norway. He found 33%, 48% and 71% decrease of palsa area, in three separate study areas. Among 19 separate mires or study areas, ten are indicated to completely lose palsas if the observed decrease of area continued, indicating a 53% probability of collapse.

The extrapolations of recent decade trends to the future are not realistic since the patterns of fluctuation can be complex and only a simple linear model is applied. More complex modeling would need climatic model input and some mechanisms can involve significant nonlinearities. However, for reasons of parsimony and simplicity of interpretation, as well as paucity of data in many cases, these sources are used in a simple manner. The estimated probabilities/quantities assume that the recent and present trends remain the same over the next 50 years. Furthermore, these extrapolations are presented to support and further test the indications from the actual modeling studies.

Synthesis:
This habitat type is assessed as Critically Endangered (CR) under Criterion E as its probability of collapse within the next 50 years is estimated to be over 50% as a result of climate warming. This quantitative analysis has been performed by reviewing and analyzing published research articles, together with unpublished contributions from experts, by including probabilistic modeling of future trends and linear extrapolation of recent trends to support model predictions.
However, there are certain comments to the assessment that need to be mentioned. First of all, monitoring of the active layer depth was possibly undertaken on big palsa mounds whose degradation may have occurred as part of their natural cycle. Furthermore, palsa mounds themselves are only components of the palsa mire habitats, while other indicators of habitat quality are poorly known and have not been considered in this assessment. In addition, extrapolation of recent trends to the future is heavily dependent on which precise recent period of climate fluctuation was included in the data. It is also noteworthy that there is no complete information available on area cover and decrease throughout the whole distribution of the habitat type.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Mires with temporal frost features are poorly known, while they are included as a sub-type of palsa mires in EUNIS (D3.12: Sphagnum fuscum pounikko hummocks). They have long-lasting seasonal frost that some years may persist over the summer se

Contributors:
habitat definition: T, Tahvanainen
Territorial data: M. Hajek, T. Kontula, S. Tuominen, T. Kumpula
Working Group Mires & bogs: C. Bita-Nicolae, M. Hájek, F. Jansen, T. Tahvanainen


Habitat Type Name:
A1.13: Communities of Mediterranean upper mediolittoral rock

Habitat Description:
This habitat occurs in the mediolittoral (surf zone) of the Mediterranean coast on areas of bedrock, boulders and stones.  The associated species are adapted to long periods of emersion. In the upper mediolittoral the main species present are barnacles, periwinkles and limpets forming a belt which may be more than three meters in highly swashed coasts. In the lower part of this habitat, the moister conditions mean that algae can become established and dominate. The characteristic species  include Pyropia elongata, Bangia fuscopurpurea, Polysiphonia sertularioides, Rissoella verruculosa and, on exposed shores of both calcareous and siliceous substrates, brown crusts of Ralfsia verrucosa.
Indicators of quality

Most of the species associated with this habitat are capable of withstanding rather high environmental pressures, even man-induced ones however Rissoella verruculosa, which is characteristic of one of the associated biotopes is sensitive to both pollution and human activities and may therefore be a potential quality indicator.
A "Quality of Rocky Bottoms index" (CFR by its Spanish acronym) used in Spanish Atlantic waters for the assessment of macroalgae communities on rocky shores may have some potentially application in assessment of quality of this habitat.

Characteristic species:
Rhodophyta (red algae)-Rissoella verruculosa. Pyropia elongata, Themis ballesterosii, Nemalion helmintoides, Bangia fuscopurpurea, Hildenbrandia rubra, Polysiphonia sertularioides, Callithamnion granulatum.
Phaeophyta (brown algae)-Ralfsia verrucosa, Scytosiphon lomentaria, Hapalospongidion macrocarpum.
Chlorophyta (green algae)-Blidingia chadefaudii, Blidingia minima.
Cyanophyta (blue-green algae)-Rivularia atra,Rivularia mesenterica, Brachytrichia quoyi, Entophysalis granulosa, Lyngbya confervoides, Calothrix crustacea.
Lichens-Verrucaria amphibia, Pyrenocollema halodytes.
Gastropoda- Patella rustica, Melarhaphe neritoides, Echinolittorina punctata, Phorcus turbinatus
Cirripedia- Chthamalus stellatus, Chthamalus montagui, Euraphia depressa.
Isopoda- Ligia italica.
Decapoda- Pachygrapsus marmoratus.
Insecta- Fucellia sp.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405).
Level 4. A sub-habitat of A1.1 High energy littoral rock

Annex 1:
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
1170 Reefs

MAES-2:
Marine - inlets and transitional waters
Marine - coastal

MSFD:
Littoral rock and biogenic reef

EUSeaMap:
Not mapped

IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Barcelona Convention (RAC/SPA):
II. 4. 1. Biocenosis of the upper mediolittoral rock

Map Description:
This map has been generated using data from IUCN and the European Environment Agency (EEA), and supplemented with expert opinion. EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this may not indicate the full distribution of the habitat.

Trends in Quantity:
This habitat is common along Mediterranean shores and is widely distributed. Nevertheless, research and monitoring has only been carried out at a few sites. At present, there are no reports about the trends in loss of this habitat from individual countries. The quantity of loss of the habitat can be inferred from the amount of coastal construction (such as breakwaters,harbours, jetties and seawalls) since the second half of the 20th century.
By 2006, this coastal construction had occupied 2,622 km of habitats along the coast, (estimated using information provided by European Environment Agency on distribution of harbour areas, coastal embankments for construction purposes and artificial shoreline or shoreline with longitudinal protection works (dikes) without aerated strands). As only 54% of the Mediterranean coastline is occupied by rocky mediolittoral environments and assuming this also applied to the artificial construction of the coast, this means it possible that around 1,415km of the 2,622 km was constructed on upper rocky habitats.
The current distribution of mediolittoral rock occupies 5,402 km (based on EMODnet database). Hindcasting suggests that the original habitat occupied at least 6,817 km (current habitat distribution and past lost habitat distribution) and of this, approx. 20,8 % has been lost in the EU countries up until 2006.

Trends in Quality:
There are few reports on trends in quality of this habitat. In general, it is believed that there is a slight loss of diversity and production in communities of Mediterranean upper mediolittoral rock, however more information is needed to determine any trends.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
It has been estimated that 54% of the Mediterranean coastline of the EU 28 is rocky. This habitat is also present in the EU 28+ but the percentage is unknown.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat does not have a small natural range as the EOO larger than 50,000 km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat is widespread along the Mediterranean coast and does not have an intrinsically restricted area.

Pressures and Threats:
The main pressures and threats on this habitat are associated with substratum loss due to direct destruction by human modifications of the coastline from building and harbour development, and also from degraded water quality. Urban and industrial wastes as well as wastewater are discharged directly into the sea in some countries and chemical contaminants that can lead to reduced growth of some of the associated species and general degradation of the habitat. The introduction of hard coastal-defence structures can also facilitate the expansion of a species associated with hard substrates including nonindigenous species.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is widespread and common and therefore likely to be present within some protected areas although it may not be subject to specific conservation measures. Beneficial actions include those which improve water quality and the regulation of coastal development in order to avoid both direct and indirect damage. Further work is needed to identify management measures to support the conservation of this habitat.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Unknown although some of the dominant species of this habitat are particularly intolerant to various chemical and increases of nutrients with limited recovery capacity. Others such as those the red algae Bangia fuscopurpurea show greater capacity to some disturbance and recovery.

Summary:
The habitat occurs in the mediolittoral (surf zone) of the Mediterranean coast on areas of bedrock,boulders and stones. The associated species are adapted to long periods of emersion and form bands along the shore. They include barnacles, periwinkles and limpets and, and in the moister conditions of the lower shore, various species of algae can become established and dominate.
The main pressures and threats on this habitat are associated with substratum loss due to direct destruction by human modifications of the coastline from building and harbour development, and also from degraded water quality. The introduction of hard coastal-defence structures can also facilitate the expansion non-indigenous species. Further work is needed to identify management measures to support the conservation of this habitat.

References:
Ballesteros, E. 1984. Els estatges supralitoral i mediolitoral de les Illes Medes. In: Els sistemes naturals de les Illes Medes (eds. J. Ros, I.â€¯Olivella & J.M. Gili). Arxius Secció Ciències, 73: 647-659. IEC. Barcelona.
Ballesteros, E. 1991. Structure and dynamics of the community of Rissoella verruculosa (Bertoloni) J. Agardh (Gigartinales, Rhodophyceae) in the North-Western Mediterranean. Scientia Marina, 55: 439-451.
Ballesteros, E. 1992. Els vegetals i la zonació litoral: espècies, comunitats i factors que influeixen en la seva distribució. Arxius Secció Ciències, 101. Institut d'Estudis Catalans. Barcelona. 616 pp.
Ballesteros, E., S. Mariani, M. E. Cefalì, M. Terradas & E. Chappuis. 2014. Manual dels hàbitats litorals a Catalunya. Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Territori i Sostenibilitat, Barcelona. 251 pp.
Ballesteros, E. & J. Romero. 1988. Zonation patterns in tideless environments (Northwestern Mediterranean): looking for discontinuities in species distributions. Investigación Pesquera, 52(4): 595-616.
Boudouresque, C. F. 1971. Contribution à l’étude phytosociologique des peuplements algaux des côtes varoises. Vegetatio, 22: 83-184.
Chappuis, E., M. Terradas, M. E. Cefali, S. Mariani & E. Ballesteros. 2014. Vertical zonation is the main distribution pattern of littoral assemblages on rocky shores at a regional scale. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 147: 113-122.
Curcó, A., A. Ferré, J. Font, J. Gesti, L. Vilar & E. Ballesteros. 2008. Manual dels Hàbitats de Catalunya. Vol II. 1 Ambients litorals i salins. (Eds. J. Vigo, J. Carreras & A. Ferré). Departament de Medi Ambient i Habitatge. Generalitat de Catalunya. Barcelona. 312 pp.
EEA, 1999. State and pressures of the marine and coastal Mediterranean environment. ISBN: 92-9167-187-8. 43pp.
Feldmann, J. 1937. Recherches sur la végétation marine de la Méditerranée: la côte des Albères. Revue Algologique, 10: 1-339.
Giaccone, G., G. Alongi, A. Cossu, R. Di Geronimo & D. Serio. 1993. La vegetazione marina bentonica del Mediterraneo: I. Sopralitorale e mesolitorale. Proposte di aggiornamento. Boll. Accad. Gioenia Sci. Nat. Catania, 26 (341): 145-172.
Menconi, M., Benedetti-Cecchi, L ., Cinelli, F. 1999. Spatial and temporal variability in the distribution of algae and invertebrates on rocky shores in the northwest Mediterranean, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 233: 1–23.
Molinier, R. 1960. Étude des biocoenoses marines du Cap Corse. Vegetatio, 9: 120-192.
Pérès, J. M. & J. Picard. 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique de la Mer Méditerranée. Recueil des Travaux Statione Marine d’Endoume, 31(47): 3-137.
Piante C., Ody D.,2015. Blue Growth in the Mediterranean Sea: the Challenge of Good Environmental Status. MedTrends Project. WWF-France. 192 pages.
Pons, A. and Rullan, O. 2013. Artificialization and Islandness in Coastal Areas of Western Mediterranean Europe With special attention to the Spanish tourist coast. International Geographical Union. Commission on Islands Proceedings of the International Conference on ‘Island Development. Local Economy, Culture, Innovation and Sustainability’, 1 - 5 October 2013, Penghu Archipelago, Taiwan. P71- P7-12.
Templado, J., E. Ballesteros, I. Galparsoro, A. Borja, A. Serrano, L. Marín & A. Brito. 2012. Guía interpretativa: Inventario español de hábitats marinos. Inventario español de hábitats y especies marinos. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. 229 pp.
Vaselli, S., Bulleri, F. & Benedetti-Cecchi, L. 2008. Hard coastal-defence structures as habitats for native and exotic rocky-bottom species. Marine Environmental Research, 66, 395–403.
UNEP/MAP, 2012. State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environment, UNEP/MAP – Barcelona Convention, Athens.

Criterion A Text:
Based on the information available it is inferred that by 2015 at least 20% of this habitat has been lost over the last 50 years in the EU 28. This is primarily due to coastal development. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria A1 for EU 28 and DD for EU +28.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a widespread distribution in the Mediterranean Sea, with an EOO larger than 50,000 km2 and an AOO larger than 50. This exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B for the EU 28. For EU 28+, the habitat is assessed as Least Concern under criteria B, B2c and B3, and Data Deficient  under B2a and B2b

Criterion C/D Text:
An assessment of reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality is not possible due to the lack of studies and data on past state conditions. However, the increasing urbanization of the Mediterranean coast will continue have a slight to moderate impact of this habitat although the extent affected is unknown. Since there are no studies available on the past and current conditions to calculate the reductions in abiotic and/or biotic quality, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion C/D, C and D.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a wide geographical range but despite most of the Mediterranean coast being rocky, quantitative data on its extent are limited. Trends have been inferred in light of past development of harbours, dikes and others coastal structures which suggest that less than 20 % of this habitat has been lost over the last 50 years. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern for the EU 28.
For EU28+, the habitat has a large EOO, and therefore it qualifies as Least Concern under Criterion B. However, the habitat is assessed as Data Deficient at EU 28+ level given the lack of information on its trends in quantity and quality and the fact that its overall distribution is unknown.

Contributors:
Mariani S., Ballesteros E., Elena Cefalì M., Alcazar E.


Habitat Type Name:
C2.4 Tidal river, upstream from the estuary

Habitat Description:
This habitat includes portions of large rivers subject to the tide, upstream from the estuary. The water level is subject to tidal influence, but the water is mainly freshwater or slightly brackish (1-2 psu).  Several aquatic macrophytes and helophytes are characteristic of this habitat, and some of them are endemic to specific river floodplains. In this habitat, the submerged aquatic vegetation is especially developed in shallow parts of the river system, where the water level is only about 20 cm at low tide. Here, submerged macrophytes can form extensive beds. The banks are covered by extensive helophyte vegetation, usually dominated by Phragmites australis that is tolerant to periodical water table fluctuations. More characteristic for the lower zones are Schoenoplectus triqueter and Bolboschoenus maritimus. The helophyte dominated vegetation growing on the permanently flooded part of the beds is included in this habitat, however the emergent vegetation growing on the periodically flooded banks, with characteristic species like Leucojum aestivum and Senecio fluviatilis, is included in the habitat type C5.1.Some endemic species occur in tidal freshwater areas, like Oenanthe conioides and Deschampsia wibeliana in the Elbe floodplain, and Caltha palustris ssp. araneosa  in the Scheldt, Rhine-Meuse and Elbe floodplains.
Vegetation zonation is highly dependent on flooding frequency. In sheltered parts of the tidal creeks, which almost never dry completely, Nuphar lutea, Potamageton pusillus and Potamageton perfoliatus may locally dominate. Potamogeton pectinatus, Zannichellia palustris ssp. palustris, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Veronica anagallis-aquatica, Veronica catenata and Sparganium emersum sometimes also occur in or near the gullies. Special (semi)aquatic species that occur in tidal freshwater habitats are those of the genus Elatine. Although extreme rare and not completely associated with tidal freshwater habitats, Elatine hydropiper and Elatine triandra occur in this system in The Netherlands.
Tidal freshwater wetlands have become scarce in Europe because of drastic human alterations of estuarine geomorphology. The habitat is restricted to the Atlantic and North Sea coast of Europe, where tidal fluctuation is relatively large. In the current situation, the main tidal freshwater wetlands are distributed directly upstream from the estuaries of the Thames, Trent (UK), Weser (DE), Elbe (DE/NL), Rhine-Meuse (NL), Scheldt (B), Garonne, Loire, Seine, Charente (FR) and Mondego (PT).
Indicators of good quality:
Submerged, open fields of sediment-rooted aquatic macrophytes
Absence of or only limited alterations of estuarine hydromorphology
Tidal amplitude unchanged
Freshwater to slightly brackish water
Good water quality in terms of nutrient content and water clarity supporting submerged macrophyte growth

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Bolboschoenus maritimus, Caltha palustris ssp. araneosa, Deschampsia wibeliana, Elatine hydropiper, Elatine triandra, Leucojum aestivum, Najas marina, Najas minor, Nasturtium officinale, Oenanthe conioides, Potamogeton nodosus, Potamogeton perfoliatus, Schoenoplectus triqueter, Senecio fluviatilis, Senecio paludosus, Sparganium emersum, Vallisneria spiralis, Veronica anagallis-aquatica, Veronica catenata, Zannichellia palustris. 
Fish: Alosa fallax

Classification:
EUNIS:
C2.4 Tidal rivers, upstream from the estuary
EuroVegChecklist:
Potamogetonion Libbert 1931
Phragmition communis Koch 1926 (marginal)
Scirpion maritimi Dahl et Hadac 1941 (marginal)
Annex 1:
--
 (very small parts overlap with: 3260 Water courses of plain to montane levels with the Ranunculion fluitantis)
Emerald:
--
MAES-2:
Fresh water, Rivers and lakes
IUCN ecosystems:
5.1.  Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks [includes waterfalls]
Water Framework Directive:
Transitional waters

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
In Europe, the largest freshwater tidal areas are found in rivers that flow to the Atlantic and North Sea coast, where tidal differences are largest.

Map Description:
Map is probably incomplete and may provide an overestimation in the tidal rivers. Data sources: EVA, EXP.

Trends in Quantity:
Very few quantitative data on present area have been reported, while these are needed for calculating average European trends. Therefore, as an alternative, the amount of freshwater tidal habitat has been estimated from the amount of the habitat type “1130 Estuaries” in the Atlantic region that has been reported for the Article 17 report of the Habitats Directive. Assuming that the amount of fresh water habitat is 10-20% of the area of the Atlantic  estuaries, and using the reported trend values from Germany, Ireland, Netherlands and France (covering 66% of the area), the average trend in area is -14% for the EU28. For EU28+ no additional data is available.

Trends in Quality:
Making the same assumptions on area as for calculating trends in quantity, it was possible to calculate average European trend in quality, using reported data from United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands and France, covering more than 80% of the area. The UK reported a very small negative trend in quality, but negative trend values for Germany, France and The Netherlands were very high. On average in the EU28 (and EU28+) 54% of the remaining area is negatively affected, with very high severity (88%).

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Only a small percentage of the total worldwide area of the habitat lies in the EU, probably around 20 %.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a large natural range, following regression.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat has a small natural area in all sites, as it includes parts of the large rivers subject to the tide and upstream from the estuary. The water level is subject to tidal influence, however the water is mainly freshwater or is slightly brackis.

Pressures and Threats:
The main pressures and threats include hydraulic modification of the habitat and related modifications of the natural conditions of freshwater tide and the natural shoreline. Secondly, water pollution is a main pressure, including eutrophication and diffuse pollution and point pollution.Thirdly, invasive non-native species form a threat for the inhabiting native species of the habitat.

Conservation and Management:
The current approaches to conservation and management are:
1. Restoring and improving water quality e.g. by cutting off discharge of point sources with polluted water;
2. Restoring and improving the hydrological regime e.g. by allowing tidal influence in dammed sea arms and rivers;
3. Installing protected areas large enough to maintain hydrological and water quality conditions.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Natural recovery is hardly possible, although due to climatic changes and sea level rise the freshwater tidal habitat might change its position along the gradient. Intervention includes allowing tidal influences in dammed sea arms and rivers and cutting off polluting discharges into the surface water.

Summary:
This habitat includes portions of large, mainly Atlantic, rivers subject to tidal push and pull of mainly fresh, sometimes brackish waters, upstream from the estuary. Submerged macrophytes can form extensive beds in areas with waters that are shallow at low-tide with emergents on permanently flooded banks, zonations between strongly dependent on the flooding frequency and length. Scarce because of anthropogenic alterations to estuaries, infrastructure development, pollution and invasion of non-native species pose continuing threats. Restoration measures include improving water quality and restoring the hydrological regime and a long time period is needed for restoration.

References:
Struyf, E., S. Jacobs, P. Meire, K. Jensen & A. Barendregt (2008). Plant communities in European tidal freshwater wetlands.  Chapter 6.  In: A. Barendregt, D.F. Whigham & A.H. Baldwin (eds.). Tidal freshwater wetlands. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Von Weihe, K. & G. Reese (1968). Deschampsia wibeliana Sonder (Parl.). Beiträge zur Monographie einer Art des Tidegebietes. Botanische Jahrbücher 88: 1-48.

Criterion A Text:
Based on some assumptions for the area (see section “Trend in quantity”) and trend data from 4 EU28-countries (covering about 66% of the habitat area) the average trend over the last 50 years was calculated to be -15%. This leads to the conclusion Least Concern for criterion A1. No or too few data on long historical trends or future trends are available.

Criterion B Text:
There is a continuing decline in area and quality, but AOO and EOO are above the threshold for criteria under B.

Criterion C/D Text:
Based on assumptions for the area (see section “Trend in quantity”) and trend data from 4 EU28-countries (covering about 84% of the habitat area) the average trend in quality over the last 50 years was calculated to negatively affect 54% of the area with a severity of 88%. This leads to the conclusion Endangered for criterion C/D1. The change in quality concerns both biotic and abiotic aspects. No or too few data on long historical trends or future trends are available.

Synthesis:
A full quantitative assessment of the decline in abiotic and biotic quality and quantity was not possible due to data deficiency. However, based on a combination of assumptions and reported data from the main countries, trends have been calculated, The degradation in quality is very high, leading to the category Endangered (EN) for criterion C/D1.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No sub-habitat types have been identified.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: G. Arts
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, G. Arts, S. Assini, F. Bioret, J. Brophy, G. Buffa, P. Finck, C. Mainstone, U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Symank
Working Group Freshwater Habitats: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen


Habitat Type Name:
A5.535: Posidonia beds in the Mediterranean infralittoral zone

Habitat Description:
This habitat is created by the ecosystem engineer species, the seagrass Posidonia oceanica. The plant of this seagrass consists of erected and plagiotropic rhizomes with at the top a 4 -8 leaves bundle, which has 8-11 mm wide and 20 to 80 cm long. The growth of the rhizomes allows the building of a specific structure called “matte” due to the accumulation of sediment between rhizomes and roots. This is a real engineering species, which constitutes characteristic formations called “Posidonia meadows” or “Posidonia beds”, between the sea- surface and 35 to 40 m depth. When the waters are particularly clear, these meadows can go deeper than 45 m deep (e.g. Corsica, Malta). They disappear when the salinity is below 33 % (optimum 35 to 39%). However, they support relatively large temperature variations from 9 to 29 ° C (17 optimum at 20 ° C). Posidonia beds can be present on various substrates (e.g. silt, fine sand, average and coarse, rocks), even if they prefer soft bottoms, rich in organic matter. This endemic species is the most widespread seagrass species throughout the Mediterranean. It is common on different types of substrate and habitats, from sandy bottoms to rocks. However, its biological characteristics with rare sexual reproduction and slow horizontal growth of rhizome edges, don’t allow a rapid recolonization of degraded or new forming beds.
Several sub-habitats have been described:
- Ecomorphosis of striped Posidonia oceanica meadows (A5.5351),
- Ecomorphosis of "barrier-reef" Posidonia oceanica meadows (A5.5352);
- Facies of dead "mattes" of Posidonia oceanica without much epiflora (A5.5353) and
- Association with Caulerpa prolifera on Posidonia beds (A5.5354).
 
Indicators of quality:
 
Posidonia oceanica is considered as good biological indicator of the quality of the marine environment and is considered as a biological quality element in the implementation of the European Framework Water Directive. Several descriptors are available to evaluate the quality of the Posidonia meadows habitat and many indicators of quality, based on combination of these descriptors have been established, particularly to monitor the habitat in the framework of European directives (e.g. Habitat, Fauna and Flora Directive, Water Framework Directive and recently Marine Strategy Framework Directive) or for conservation purposes (national or sub-national initiatives).  
Characteristic species:
It is possible to divide the main characteristic species of the Posidonia meadows in three compartments and/or in different trophic levels:
- The species living within the thickness of the matte (endofauna). This assemblage is rich in polychetes (Mediomastus capensis, Neanthes nubila, Lumbrineriopsis paradoxa, Pontogenia chrysocoma), molluscs (Modiolula phaseolina, Hiatella arctica, Limaria hians, Gourretia denticulata) and crustacean (Upogebia deltaura, Limnoria mazzellae).
- The species living under the foliar shoots (sciaphilous strata) as algae (Halimeda tuna, Flabellia petiolata, Peyssonnelia squamaria, Rhodymenia sp.), the foraminifer (Miniacina miniacea), echinoderms (Paracentrotus lividus, Sphaerechinus granularis, Holothuria tubulosa, Echinaster (Echinaster) sepositus, Marthasterias glacialis, Ophiura ophiura and Ophioderma longicauda); crustaceans (Nototropis guttatus, Melita palmata, Gammarella fucicola, Cleantis prismatica and Sirpus zariquieyi), bivalves (Pinna nobilis), ascidians (Halocynthia papillosa, Microcosmus vulgaris).
- The species living on the leaves (phyllosphere) and the vagile species present in the canopy, as encrusting algae (Pneophyllum fragile; Electra posidoniae, Hydrolithon sp.), hydrozoans (Plumularia posidoniae, Sertularia perpusilla, bryozoan, crustacean (Idotea balthica), cephalopods (Octopus vulgaris, Sepia officinalis), gastropods (Synischia hectica, Achaeus cranchii, Pisa nodipes, Bittium reticulatum, Calliostoma laugieri, Cerithium vulgatum, Columbella rustica, Gibbula umbilicaris, Tricolia speciosa, Alvania lineata, Rissoa sp. and Jujubinus sp.) and fishes (Sarpa salpa, Hippocampus hippocampus, Symphodus sp., Coris julis, Chromis chromis, Diplodus vulgaris, Scorpaena porcus).

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4: A subhabitat of 'Sublittoral macrophyte dominated sediment' (A5.5).
 
Annex 1:
1120 Posidonia beds
 
MAES-2: 
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral sediment (coarse, sand, mud, mixed)- Posidonia oceanica meadows (Italy)
 
EUSeaMap:
Seagrass meadows
 
IUCN:
9.9 - Seagrass submerged
 
Barcelona convention (RAC/SPA):
III. 5. 1. Posidonia oceanica meadows (= Association with Posidonia oceanica)
III. 5. 1. 1. Ecomorphosis of striped meadows
III. 5. 1. 2. Ecomorphosis of “barrier-reef” meadows
III. 5. 1. 3. Facies of dead “mattes” of Posidonia oceanica without much epiflora
III. 5. 1. 4. Association with Caulerpa prolifera

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Posidonia oceanica is an endemic species that form unique habitats along the Mediterranean coast.

Map Description:
This map has been generated based on Telesca et al., 2015 and the IUCN Red list (2015).

Comment EU28:
Source of current estimated total area:Telesca et al., 2015. EOO and AOO source: IUCN Red list (2015).

Comment EU28+:
Source of current estimated total area:Telesca et al., 2015. EOO and AOO source: IUCN Red list (2015).

Trends in Quantity:
P. oceanica meadows are found to be widely present along the continental coastline and islands of most Mediterranean countries. For those countries where there is monitoring, a 12 % of decline seems to be the average value and could represent the minimal value of decline for the next 10-15 years while other countries report a larger decrease of the meadows. For countries such as  Albania, Greece, Turkey, or Croatia, distribution is poorly documented and the current area concerns only less than 15-30% of the coastlines. Few reports reflected an increase in the surface of the Posidonia meadows, with the exception of Slovenia, these seems to be due to an important increase of knowledges in relation with the distribution of these Posidonia beds. The total known area of P. oceanica meadows in the Mediterranean Sea is being estimated to be 12,247 km2, with an estimated regression of meadows amounted to 34% in the last 50 years due to cumulative effects of multiple local stressors. For the western Mediterranean, since 1980, however, it has being estimated that 56% of the Posidonia meadows whose demographic status has been monitored have suffered a decline in the coverage or its density.

Trends in Quality:
Relevant signs of regression in the quality of the meadows were documented in different areas of the Mediterranean, the more severe situations occurring in sites with a medium or high human impact (e.g. proximity to fishing ports, urbanised area), but also in proximity to river mouths which are located along the continental coastline. In Spain, it is estimated a decrease in the quality of the meadows to 49,585 ha over the last twenty years. Wide meadows declined and overall regression of the habitat was documented along the continental coasts of Liguria, Tuscany, Latium, Sardinia and Apulia regions of Italy as well as few sites in Albania as well as in France although in the latter a positive improvement has been observed from conservation efforts.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
More than 56% of the known spatial distribution of this habitat lies within EU countries. The information is quite comprehensive for the Mediterranean sub-basins considered here except for parts of Greece and Croatia.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat has a large natural range extending throughout the Mediterranean Sea and an EOO >50,000km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat has a large natural range extending throughout the Mediterranean Sea and an EOO >50,000km2.

Pressures and Threats:
The lower limit of this habitat is threatened by mechanical damage from trawling, boat anchoring and turbidity. Coastal development including shoreline artificialisation, urban and harbour infrastructure, and sand mining affect also the upper limit distribution of Posidonia meadows. Eutrophication (originated from the discharges of agriculture nutrients, organic matter, aquaculture and urban waste) and pollution, especially in coastal regions that are heavily populated, are a problem in many coastal areas. Invasive macroalgae such as Caulerpa taxifolia can grow on Posidonia rhizomes and sand and their proliferation is believed could accelerate the decline of the meadow. The proliferation of other epiphytic invasive species, such as Lophocladia lamellandii in the western Mediterranean can also threaten the survival and affect the density and complexity of the assemblages in the meadow. Climate change would be an additional threat through the warming of waters, sea level rise and extreme weather events.

Conservation and Management:
Posidonia oceanica is protected by EU legislation (Habitat Directive), the Bern and Barcelona Conventions and some national legislations.
The habitat formed by this seagrass is also protected in various marine protected areas in the countries along the Mediterranean Sea. EU fishing regulations ban trawling activities near the shore (either above 50 m or 3 nm from the coast), giving indirect protection for this habitat (EC Council Regulation No. 1967, 21/12/2006). In some regions, more regulations are in place for fishing, shellfishing and aquaculture activities to be conducted on or above seagrass meadows to avoid negative impacts on the seagrasses. To prevent physical damage caused by trawling on the meadows, different measures should be put in place such as placing artificial reefs along certain stretches of the coast, developing effective surveillance programmes and enforcing the existing regulations to avoid illegal trawling. Awareness programmes with different sectors such as recreational boats and local councils will help to the better management of coastal activities and identifying areas where cost-effective schemes for threats reduction could be implemented. Mapping and monitoring efforts should target the remaining unmapped coastline (21,500 km) located in the southern and eastern regions of the basin and long term monitoring efforts should be in place to detect possible changes in the habitat.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
1120: MMED U1
Species classified as Priority Habitat in the Habitats Directive (Dir 92/43/CEE). It is also included in the Barcelona Convention Annex II, List of endangered or threatened species. It is also included in the Ann

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The accumulation of different pressures and threats with the lack of genetic variability and slow growth, makes Posidonia oceanica habitat less resilient to disturbance and slow recovery. The species has a rare sexual reproduction and slow horizontal growth of rhizome edges that do not provide a rapid recolonization of degraded beds or the colonisation of new areas.

Summary:
This habitat is created by the ecosystem engineer species, the seagrass Posidonia oceanica.  The growth of the rhizomes allows the building of a specific structure called “matte” due to the accumulation of sediment between rhizomes and roots.  “Posidonia meadows” or “Posidonia beds”, occur between the sea- surface and 35 to 40 m depth. When the waters are particularly clear, these meadows can go deeper than 45 m deep (e.g. Corsica, Malta). Posidonia beds can be present on various substrates (e.g. silt, fine sand, average and coarse, rocks), even if they prefer soft bottoms, rich in organic matter. This endemic species is the most widespread seagrass species throughout the Mediterranean, however, its biological characteristics with rare sexual reproduction and slow horizontal growth of rhizome edges, prevents rapid recolonization of degraded or new forming beds.
Pressures to this habitat include the impacts of trawling, boat anchoring and coastal development including shoreline artificialisation, urban and harbour infrastructure, and sand mining affect also the upper limit distribution of Posidonia meadows. Eutrophication and pollution, especially in coastal regions that are heavily populated, are a problem in many coastal areas. Invasive macroalgae such as Caulerpa taxifolia and Lophocladia lamellandii can threaten the survival and affect the density and complexity of the assemblages in the meadow. Climate change would be an additional threat through the warming of waters, sea level rise and extreme weather events. Posidonia oceanica is protected by EU legislation (Habitat Directive), the Bern and Barcelona Conventions and some national legislations. The habitat formed by this seagrass is also in various marine protected areas in the countries along the Mediterranean Sea. Monitoring and implementation of fishing regulations, increased awareness and mapping projects (particularly in areas less well studied) will further help to protect this habitat.

References:
Bellan-Santini, D., Bellan, G., Bitar, G., Harmelin, J. G., Pergent, G. 2002. Handbook for interpreting types of marine habitat for the selection of sites to be included in the national inventories of natural sites of conservation interest. RAC/SPA edit., UNEP publ. : 217p.
Borg, J. A. and Schembri, P. J. 1995. The state of Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile meadow in the Maltese Islands (Central Mediterranean). Rapport du Congrès de la Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Méditerranée 34: 123.
Boudouresque, C. F., Bernard, G., Bonhomme, P., Charbonnel, E., Diviacco, G., Meinesz, A., Pergent, G., Pergent-Martini, C., Ruitton, S., Tunesi, L. 2012. Protection and conservation of Posidonia oceanica meadows. RAC/SPA & RAMOGE pub. : 202p.
Boudouresque, C. F., Bernard, G., Pergent, G., Shili, A., Verlaque, M. 2009. Regression of Mediterranean seagrasses caused by natural processes and anthropogenic disturbances and stress: a critical review. Botanica Marina, 52: 395–418.
Díaz-Almela, E. and Duarte, C. M. 2008. Management of Natura 2000 habitats. 1120 *Posidonia beds (Posidonion oceanicae). European Commission.
Fernández-Torquemada, Y., Díaz-Valdés, M., Colilla, F., Luna, B., Sánchez-Lizaso, J. L., and Ramos Esplá, A. A. 2009. Descriptors from Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile meadows in coastal waters of Valencia, Spain, in the context of the EU Water Framework Directive. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65: 000-000.
Giakoumi, S., Halpern, B., Michel, L., Gobert, S., Sini, M., Boudouresque, C. F., Gambi, M. C., Katsanevakis, S., Lejeune, P., Montefalcone, M., Pergent, G., Pergent-Martini, C., Sanchez-Jerez, P., Velimirov, B., Vizzini, S., Abadie, A., Coll, M., Guidetti, P., Micheli, F. and Possingham, H. 2015. In press. Towards a framework for assessment and management of cumulative human impacts on marine food webs. Conservation Biology.
Lopez y Royo, C., Pergent, G., Alcoverro, T., Buia, M. C., Casazza, G., Martínez-Crego, B., Pérez, M., Silvestre, F.and Romero, J., 2011. The seagrass Posidonia oceanica as indicator of coastal water quality: Experimental intercalibration of classification systems. Ecological indicators, 11(2): 557-563.
Mifsud, C. , Cinelli, F. , Acunto, S. , Balat, D. , Lanfranco, E. , Micallef, S. A. , Piazzi, L. , Stevens, D. T. and Calvo, S., 2006. The distribution and state of health of Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile meadows along the Maltese territorial waters. Biologia Marina Mediterranea 13(4): 255–261.
Pergent, G., Bazairi, H., Bianchi, C. N., Boudouresque, C. F., Buia, M. C., Clabaut, P., Harmelin-Vivien, M., Mateo, M. A., Montefalcone, M., Morri, C., Orfanidis, S., Pergent-Martini, C., Semroud, R., Serrano, O. and Verlaque, M. 2012. Les herbiers de Magnoliophytes marines de Méditerranée : résilience et contribution à l’atténuation des changements climatiques. IUCN pub. Gland, Suisse et Malaga, Espagne, 80 pages.
Pergent-Martini, C., Leoni V., Pasqualini, V., Ardizzone, G. D., Balestri, E., Bedini, R., Belluscio, A.,  Belsher, T., Borg, J., Boudouresque, C. F., Boumaza, S., Bouquegneau, J. M., Buia, M. C., Calvo, S.,  Cebrian, J., Charbonnel, E., Cinelli, F., Cossu, A., Di Maida, G., Dural, B., Francour, P., Gobert, S., Lepoint, G., Meinesz, A., Molenaar, H., Mansour, H. M., Panayotidis, P., Peirano, A., Pergent, G., Piazzi, L., Pirrotta, M., Relini, G., Romero, J., Sanchez-Lizaso, J.L., Semroud, R., Shembri, P., Shili, A., Tomasello, A. and Velimirov, B. 2005a. Descriptors of Posidonia oceanica Meadows : Use and application. Ecological Indicators, 5: 213-230.
Pergent, G., Semroud, R., Djellouli, A., Langar, H. and Duarte, C. 2015. Posidonia oceanica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T153534A4516034. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-3.RLTS.T153534A4516034.en.
Ruiz, J.M., Guillén, J.E., Ramos Segura, A. & Otero, M.M. (Eds.). 2015. Atlas de las praderas marinas de España. IEO/IEL/ UICN, Murcia-Alicante-Málaga,
681 pp.
Telesca, L., Belluscio, A., Criscoli, A., Ardizzone, G., Apostolaki, E., Fraschetti, S., Gristina, M., Knittweis, L., Martin, C. S., Pergent, g., Alagna, A., Badalamenti, F., Garofalo, G., Gerakaris, V., Pace, M. L., Pegent-Marini, C. and Salomidi, M. 2015. Seagrass meadows (Posidonia oceanica) distribution and trajectories of change. Scientific Reports 5(12505).

Criterion A Text:
Over the last 50 years, it is thought that there has been a decline in the extent of this habitat by 34%. Whilst expert opinion is that this habitat will continue to decline in quantity, it has not been quantified. Therefore, this habitat has been assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion A1.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat is widespread in the the Mediterranean (reaching to the southern limits of Alboran Sea and Cyprus in the Levantine Sea. The EOO and the AOO exceed thresholds for threatened status. Declines in quantity and quality have been reported but the distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B.

Criterion C/D Text:
Based on the countries that have provided data (Spain, Italy, Albania and France), there has been a slight decline in the overall quality of the meadows. There is a lack of quantitative data to be able to calculate percentage change in abiotic and/or biotic quality however substantial reductions in quality in at least some regions of this habitat are known to have occurred. Potentially damaging activities are known to be occurring across this habitat at the present time and are expected to continue into the future. Expert opinion is that this is at least a slight decline affecting more than 30% of extent of the habitat.
Based on this, the habitat type is assessed as Near Threatened under Criterion C/D2.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available to estimate the probability of collapse of this habitat type. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
Posidonia oceanica seagrass beds are an endemic habitat to the Mediterranean and represent the most widespread seagrass meadow in the region. A decline in surface area of 34% has been observed over the last 50 years due to mechanical damage from trawling, coastal development, pollution, boat anchoring, discharge of effluents and general decrease of water quality and sedimentation. The known decline trend at country level is on average 12% over the last 2-15 years but information is lacking regarding the trend in different Mediterranean countries. 
There is limited information about a reduction in the habitat quality but the few reports at country level indicate a slight decline due to the mechanical alteration of the habitat (e.g. by fishing trawlers) and a decrease of the water quality (e.g. shoreline modification). Based on this information, this habitat has been assessed as Vulnerable under criteria A1 for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Assessors:
Pergent-Martini C., Otero M. M., Numa C.


Habitat Type Name:
E1.1e Perennial rocky grassland of the Italian Peninsula

Habitat Description:
This endemic habitat includes open grasslands with participation of dwarf shrubs, occurring in the interior of the Italian Peninsula. Both in their structure and floristic composition they are transitional between the Temperate dry grasslands and Mediterranean garigues. Hemicryptophytes (including perennial grasses and herbs) predominate, but dwarf shrubs and other chamaephytes are also common. Hemicryptophytes usually prevail on gentle slopes, where vegetation tends to be denser, while chamaephytes are more common on steeper slopes. Therophytes and geophytes also occur in this vegetation, especially in disturbed places, but they are not dominant. A certain number of endemic taxa is typically represented in this habitat type.
These grasslands are developed from the supra-Mediterranean to the meso-Temperate bioclimatic belts, with their optimum in the latter and in its sub-Mediterranean variant. In most cases it is secondary vegetation developed in potential habitats for deciduous forests with Quercus cerris, Q. pubescens s.l., Ostrya carpinifolia, or for mixed forests with Quercus ilex. Soils are shallow, developed usually in patches between rocky outcrops. They belong to the type of Lithic, Skeletic, Rendzic, Calcaric or Dolomitic Leptosols. Parent rocks are various calcareous sediments including limestones.
These dry grasslands are confined to the Italian Peninsula, where their range extends from the Northern to the Southern Apennines including some occurrences in Sicily. They are generally species-rich, and dependent for their long-term conservation on grazing by domestic livestock. Cessation of grazing may lead to encroachment of shrubs and trees and decline of this habitat type. In some areas the habitat was destroyed by plantation of trees, especially pines. A specific subtype of this vegetation belonging to the alliance Alyssion bertolonii, with unique species composition and a rich chamaephytic component, occurs on neutral or basic soils of serpentine outcrops and ophiolithic substrata with neutral or alkaline pH, with a distribution restricted to Tuscany, Liguria and Piedmont (Northern Apennines).
Indicators of good quality:
• Long-term habitat openness
• No encroachment of shrubs and trees
• Extensive grazing
• High species richness
• Occurrence of rare and endemic species
• Absence of tall, nutrient-demanding, ruderal and alien species
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Alyssoides utriculata, Alyssum bertolonii, Alyssum diffusum, Anthyllis vulneraria subsp. praepropera, Armeria denticulata, Artemisia alba, Asperula aristata subsp. scabra, Asperula purpurea, Asphodeline lutea, Bromus erectus, Centaurea ambigua, Centaurea aplolepa subsp. ligustica, Centaurea rupestris, Centaurea triumfetti, Cephalaria leucantha, Convolvulus cantabrica, Coronilla valentina, Crepis lacera, Cytisus spinescens, Dianthus ciliatus, Dianthus garganicus, Eryngium amethystinum, Erysimum pseudorhaeticum, Euphorbia myrsinites, Euphorbia spinosa, Festuca inops, Festuca robustifolia, Genista desoleana, Genista januensis, Globularia bisnagarica, Globularia meridionalis, Helianthemum oelandicum, Hippocrepis glauca, Hyssopus officinalis subsp. aristatus, Inula montana, Iris pseudopumila, Jurinea mollis, Koeleria splendens, Linum tommasinii, Matthiola fruticulosa, Melica transsylvanica, Minuartia laricifolia subsp. ofiolitica, Osyris alba, Phleum ambiguum, Phlomis fruticosa, Pimpinella saxifraga, Plantago holosteum, Rhamnus saxatilis subsp. infectoria, Ruta graveolens, Salvia officinalis, Satureja montana, Scorzonera villosa subsp. columnae, Silene otites, Stipa austroitalica subsp. austroitalica, Stipa dasyvaginata subsp. apenninicola, Stipa etrusca, Teucrium polium, Thymus longicaulis, Thymus striatus var. ophioliticus, Thymus vulgaris, Trinia glauca.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.1 Pioneer and open perennial grasslands of inland sands and rocky terrain
EuroVegChecklist alliances:
Cytiso spinescentis-Bromion erecti Bonin 1978
Alyssion bertolonii E. Pignatti et Pignatti 1977
Seslerio nitidae-Caricion macrolepidis Ubaldi 1997.
Annex 1:
6210(*) Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia) (*important orchid sites)
Emerald:
E1.2 Perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes
MAES-2:
Terrestrial - Grassland
IUCN:
4.4. Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
These endemic dry grassland are exclusive of Peninsular Italy. They can be found both in the Continental and the Mediterranean Biogeographic regions, however their optimum occurs in the climatic transitional zone between Temperate and Mediterranean. They concur in shaping a cultural landscape linked to the traditional land use of these areas, formerly characterized by extensive grazing systems, now increasingly at risk of disappearance due to different economic priorities and changing customs of the local populations.

Map Description:
The map is incomplete, but potential distribution is provided. Data sources: Art17, EVA.

Trends in Quantity:
Complete quantitative past data are not available for the whole habitat range, however a realistic approximation, based on the available data, is reported (643 km2). During the past 50 years a clear decreasing trend of the distribution area has been observed by the territorial experts, mostly due to abandonment of the traditional grazing activities and consequent start of the successional processes. The overall decline in quantity is about 20% on average, although there are local studies that in some case show a stronger decrease. Due to ongoing abandonment, a future decline in quantity can be expected.

Trends in Quality:
Complete qualitative past data are not available for the whole habitat range, however during the past 50 years a clear decline, from slight to severe in the different territories, has been observed by the territorial experts, mostly due to abandonment of the traditional grazing activities and consequent start of the successional processes, with important changes in the floristic composition, loss of rare species and settlement of taxa typical of shrubby and fringe communities. The average overall decline in quality is around 55% severity affecting about 60% of the current extent of the habitat, although locally a more severe degradation can be observed. Due to ongoing abandonment, a future qualitative decline can be expected.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The distribution area of this habitat type lies 100% inside the EU 28 territory.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The natural range of this habitat exceeds 50,000 km2 (although EOO is not available yet, on the ground of the known distribution it exceeds the indicated threshold).

Justification of Restricted Area:
The natural range of this habitat exceeds 50,000 km2 (although EOO is not available yet, on the ground of the known distribution it exceeds the indicated threshold).

Pressures and Threats:
The major threat for this habitat is represented by the abandonment of pastoral systems and the consequent lack of extensive grazing, a type of sustainable use that is needed for the conservation of these semi-natural grasslands. The abandonment sets the successional processes up and allows the settlement of shrubs and herbs from the forest fringes. Less frequently, even overgrazing can be a problem, when the cattle load is excessive and the animals are kept long on the same areas, causing damage to soil, vegetation structure and its floristic composition. Due to an ongoing abandonment, further decline can be expected in future.
In several areas also the former activities of forest planting on open ground, aimed at protecting soil from erosion, have largely damaged this habitat type, from both a quantitative and qualitative point of view, however these practices are nowadays not so frequently applied in the land management.

Conservation and Management:
The maintenance and promotion of traditional pastoral systems, also by way of financial support, is an essential tool for the conservation of this habitat type. The widespread abandonment that took place in the Apennines starting from the 60s, strongly affecting this habitat distribution and floristic composition, was obviously due to a lack of profit and to a deep change in the economy of Italy. Nowadays, a new evaluation of the importance of the traditional pastoral systems as nature conservation instruments and as opportunities for high-quality local productions can offer a spur for a repopulation of the marginal lands in the mountains, however it is currently acting only on a very limited scale.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
This habitat is typically represented by semi-natural plant communities, depending on traditional land-use practices for their maintainance. Once destroyed or severely damaged, e.g. due to the recolonization by the shrub-dominated vegetation, their recovery would need a drastic removal of the shrub and tree species and the re-introduction of traditional pastoral systems with extensive grazing. However, these are extremely delicate processes which might give good results only on the medium-long term.

Summary:
This habitat unique to the Italian peninsula comprises vegetation transitional between temperate dry grasslands and Mediterranean garrigue, developed on base-rich bedrocks through clearance of broadleaved and mixed woodland and maintained by traditional grazing in a distinctive cultural landscape.  Best developed within the submediterranean bioclimatic zone, it is variously dominated by perennial grasses and herbs, particularly where there is a denser cover of vegetation on gentler slopes, or mat formers and sub-shrubs on steeper, rockier ground.  Generally species-rich, and sometimes with contingents of annuals and, in disturbed places, geophytes, the habitat sometimes hosts endemic plants.  Though sometimes subject to over-grazing, the more general threat is abandonment of traditional pastoralism, and in some places afforestation.  Recent losses in extent have not been severe, except locally, though there is a more widespread decline in quality.

References:
Biondi, E., Allegrezza, M., and Zuccarello, V. 2005. Syntaxonomic revision of the Apennine grasslands belonging to Brometalia erecti, and an analysis of their relationship with the xerophilous vegetation of Rosmarinetea officinalis (Italy). Phytocoenologia 35: 129-164.
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R. and Zivkovic, L. 2009. Manuale Italiano di interpretazione degli habitat della Direttiva 92/43/CEE. Società Botanica Italiana. Ministero dell’Ambiente e della tutela del territorio e del mare, D.P.N. http://vnr.unipg.it/habitat/
Biondi, E., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R., Zivkovic, L., and Blasi, C. 2012. Diagnosis and syntaxonomic interpretation of Annex I Habitats (Dir. 92/43/EEC) in Italy at the alliance level. Plant Sociology 49: 5-37.
Biondi, E., and Galdenzi, D., 2012. Phytosociological analysis of the grasslands of Montagna dei Fiori (central Italy) and syntaxonomic review of the class Festuco-Brometea in the Apennines. Plant Sociology 49: 91-112.
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Allegrezza, M., Anzellotti, I., Azzella, M.M., Carli, E., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Facioni, L., Galdenzi, D., Gasparri, R., Lasen, C., Pesaresi, S., Poldini, L., Sburlino, G., Taffetani, F., Vagge, I., Zitti, S., and Zivkovic, L. 2014. Plant communities of Italy: The Vegetation Prodrome. Plant Biosystems 148(4): 728-814. doi: 10.1080/11263504.2014.948527
Blasi, C. (Ed.) 2010. La Vegetazione d’Italia. Palombi & Partner, Roma.
Chiarucci, A., Foggi, B., and Selvi, F. 1995. Garigue plant communities of ultramafic outcrops of Tuscany (Central Italy). Webbia 49: 179-192.
Pignatti Wikus, E., and Pignatti, S. 1977. Die Vegetation auf Serpentin-Standorten in den Nordlichen Apennin. Studia Phytologica in Honorem Jubilantis A.O. Horvat 14: 113-124.
Viciani, D., Gabellini, A., Gonnelli, V., and De Dominicis, V. 2004. La vegetazione della riserva naturale monti Rognosi (Arezzo, Toscana) ed i suoi aspetti di interesse botanico-conservazionistico. Atti Soc. tosc. Sci. nat., Mem., Serie B, 111: 27-42.

Criterion A Text:
Based on the territorial data, the reduction in quantity affected 20% of the total area on average, although in several territories of Italy the rate of decrease is higher. Figures don't correspond to any category of threat, so the habitat can be assessed as Least concern based on Criterion A1. Insufficient data are available for long historical and future trends. In general, an even worse future quantitative reduction can be expected, mainly due to the ongoing abandonment and the related successional processes.

Criterion B Text:
The ongoing tendency to abandon the traditional grazing activities represents a threatening process likely to cause continuing declines in quantity and/or quality for this habitat type, within the next 20 years. EOO and AOO are not available yet for this habitat type. However, on the ground of the known distribution it can be predicted that the values of EOO and AOO will exceed the thresholds qualifying for higher threat levels, and the assessment will result in the category Least Concern (Criteria B1 and B2).

Criterion C/D Text:
The data in the territorial sheets were mostly based on the expert opinion and provided information only for the calculation of a reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality in the last 50 years (Criterion C/D1).The qualitative On this ground, this habitat type results as Vulnerable (VU). Insufficient data are available for long historical and future trends, however a continuous future qualitative reduction can realistically be expected, mainly due to the ongoing abandonment and the related successional processes, with drastic changes in structure and floristic composition.

Criterion E Text:
No data are available for the application of Criterion E.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assigned to the category Vulnerable (VU) both in EU28 and EU28+, based on a strong reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality (Criteria C/D1). In spite of a remarkable quantitative decrease, the assessment based on Criteria A and B did not meet the thresholds qualifying for higher threat levels. Indeed, although endemic to a country, due to a scattered distribution along the Italian Peninsula the EOO and the AOO resulted rather wide. A continuous future qualitative reduction can realistically be expected, mainly due to the ongoing abandonment and the related successional processes, with drastic changes in structure and floristic composition. Considering its endemicity and the lack of complete data about past distribution and trends, a careful monitoring should be carried out in the future to prevent further loss of a landscape-shaping and species-rich habitat type.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The peculiar vegetation types belonging to the alliance Alyssion bertolonii, restricted to the Northern Apennines and typical of serpentine outcrops and ophiolithic substrata, might deserve further examination.

Contributors:
Author of definition: M. Chytrý, D. Gigante
Territorial experts: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, G. Buffa, L. Casella, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G. Giusso del Galdo, C. Marcenò, G. Pezzi, S. Sciandrello, D. Viciani
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
A1.41: Communities of Atlantic littoral rockpools

Habitat Description:
Rockpools occur where the topography of the shore allows seawater to be retained within depressions in the bedrock producing pools on the retreat of the tide. As the associated communities are permanently submerged they are not directly affected by height on the shore and normal rocky shore zonation patterns do not apply. Factors such as pool depth, surface area, volume, orientation to sunlight, shading, internal topography, sediment content and type, together with wave exposure, shore height, and hence flushing rate, and the presence of absence of freshwater runoff, results in large spatial variation in community structure, even between adjacent pools at the same shore height.
Shallow rockpools in the mid to upper shore are characterised by encrusting coralline algae and Corallina officinalis. Deeper rockpools on the mid to lower shore can support fucoids and some sublittoral species such as kelp. Those rockpools influenced by the presence of sand are characterised by sand-tolerant seaweed such as Furcellaria lumbricalis and Polyides rotundus. Where more stable sand occurs in the base of the rockpool sea-grass beds can occur. Shallow rockpools on mixed cobbles, pebbles, gravel and sand may be characterised by hydroids. A very rough guideline to the terms shallow and deep rockpools: shallow rockpools do not support kelp, whereas deep rockpools do. Rockpools on the upper shore which are subject to rainwater influence and wide fluctuations in temperature are not included in this habitat type. This habitat also does not include shallow standing water on compacted sediment or mixed substrata.
Indicators of quality:
Both biotic and abiotic indicators have been used to describe marine habitat quality. These include: the presence of characteristic species as well as those which are sensitive to the pressures the habitat may face; water quality parameters; levels of exposure to particular pressure, and more integrated indices which describe habitat structure and function, such as trophic index, or successional stages of development in habitats that have a natural cycle of change over time.
There are no commonly agreed indicators of quality for this habitat, although particular parameters may have been set in certain situations e.g. protected features within Natura 2000 sites, where reference values have been determined and applied on a location-specific basis.
Characteristic species:
In shallow rockpools Corallina officinalis often forms a dense turf. Characteristic algae include Dumontia contorta, Mastocarpus stellatus, Ceramium virgatum, Cladophora rupestris and Ulva spp. The pools may hold large numbers of grazing molluscs, particularly Littorina littorea, Patella vulgata and Gibbula cineraria. Within the pools, pits and crevices are often occupied by the anemone Actinia equina and small Mytilus edulis.
Deep rockpools often contain a community characterized by Fucus serratus and Laminaria digitata. Other large brown algae, including Laminaria saccharina, Himanthalia elongata and Halidrys siliquosa, may also occur. Characteristic encrusting filamentous and foliose algae, include Palmaria palmata, Chondrus crispus, Ceramium spp., Membranoptera alata and Gastroclonium ovatum. The sponge Halichondria panicea and anemones Actinia equina may be present on overhangs or algal free vertical surfaces. Grazing molluscs, mobile crustaceans (e.g. Pagurus bernhardus and Carcinus maenas), brittlestars (Ophiothrix fragilis and Amphipholis squamata), and encrusting bryozoans and ascidians are also present.
Rockpools with sediment floors support distinct communities of scour-tolerant algae. Deep pools with sediment are typically dominated by fucoids and kelps (Fucus serratus, Laminaria digitata, Saccharina latissima and Saccorhiza polyschides). Shallow pools on mixed cobbles, pebbles, gravel and sand may be colonized by hydroids (Obelia longissima and Kirchenpaueria pinnata), ephemeral green algae (Ulva sp.) and the winkle Littorina littorea. Mytilus edulis, barnacles (Semibalanus balanoides and Elminius modestus) and the keel worm Pomatoceros triqueter.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4 of the EUNIS classification. A sub-habitat of ‘Atlantic littoral rock’ (A1.4)
 
Annex 1:
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine - Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine - Coastal
 
MSFD relationships:
Littoral rock and biogenic reef
 
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
 
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is very typical of rocky shores in the North East Atlantic region because of the tidal range. This can be more than 13 m (Saint Malo, France) or as little as 30 cm (Danish Kattegat), and enables rockpools to form as the tide recedes.

Trends in Quantity:
The nature of this habitat means it can be ephemeral and subject to significant natural fluctuations as a result of patterns of erosion and deposition on the shore and climatic conditions. There is insufficient data on which to make an overall assessment of historical, recent or future trends in quantity.

Trends in Quality:
This nature of this habitat means it can be ephemeral and subject to significant natural fluctuations as a result of patterns of erosion and deposition on the shore, and climatic conditions. There is insufficient data on which to make an overall assessment of historical, recent or future trends in quality.

Pressures and Threats:
Poor water quality, for example eutrophication, as well as acute pollution incidents such as oil spills are pressures on this habitat. The establishment of non-native species, has been known to change the species composition of this habitat (e.g. on Helgoland where Sargassum muticum has invaded rock pools and formed a blanketing layer in the summer). Collecting may be an additional localised pressure in some locations.

Conservation and Management:
Conservation and management measures which would benefit this habitat are mostly general rather than specific measures. They include pollution control and regulation, development control and contingency plans to be followed in the event of a major pollution incident and measures to reduce global warming and sea level rise.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Generally, the effects of chronic impacts on this habitat are reversible provided the disturbance is stopped. Recovery from acute impacts is also possible but may take much longer depending on the type and scale of the impact as well as physical factors such as position on the shore, size and depth of the rock pool habitat.

Summary:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region being found on rocky shores in the Canaries and Azores in the west to the Skagerrak coast of Sweden in the east. There is considerable variety in the associated communities as they are influenced by factors such as position on the shore and size and depth of the rock pools. Weather as well as climate conditions can affect this habitat and it is also vulnerable to damage from chronic and acute pollution.  Poor water quality, for example eutrophication, as well as acute pollution incidents such as oil spills are pressures on this habitat. The establishment of non-native species, has been known to change the species composition of this habitat. 
Conservation and management measures which would benefit this habitat are mostly general rather than specific measures. They include pollution control and regulation, development control and contingency plans to be followed in the event of a major pollution incident and measures to reduce global warming and sea level rise.

References:
Bartsch, I. & Tittley, I. 2004. The rocky intertidal biotopes of Helgoland: present and past. Helgoland Marine Research 58:289-302. 
Budd, G.C. 2002. Corallina officinalis and coralline crusts in shallow eulittoral rockpools. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme. [online] Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitatsbasicinfo.php?habitatid=240&code=2004. (Accessed: 11/08/2014).
European Environment Agency, (2014) EUNIS habitat type hierarchical view. Available at: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats-code-browser.jsp. (Accessed 11/08/2014).
Marshall, C.E. 2005. Hydroids, ephemeral seaweeds and Littorina littorea in shallow eulittoral mixed substrata pools. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme. [online] Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitatsbasicinfo.php?habitatid=54&code=2004. (Accessed: 11/08/2014).
Tempera, F., E. Atchoi, P. Amorim, J. Gomes-Pereira & J. Gonçalves (2013). Atlantic Area Marine Habitats. Adding new Macaronesian habitat types from the Azores to the EUNIS Habitat Classification. Horta: MeshAtlantic, IMAR/DOP-UAç, p.126.
Tyler-Walters, H. 2005. Fucoids and kelps in deep eulittoral rockpools. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme. [online] Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Availiable at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitats/detail/282/fucoids_and_kelp_in_deep_eulittoral_rockpools. (Accessed: 11/08/2014). 
Tyler-Walters, H. 2005. Seaweeds in sediment (sand or gravel)-floored eulittoral rockpools. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme. [online] Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Availiable at: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitatsbasicinfo.php?habitatid=326&code=2004. (Accessed: 11/08/2014). 
Wallenstein, F.M, Peres, S.D., Xavier, E.D. et al. 2010. Phytobenthic communities of intertidal rock pools in the eastern islands of the Azores and their relation to position on shore and pool morphology. Arquipelago. Life and Marine Sciences 27:9-20.

Criterion A Text:
The general distribution of this habitat is well known even though there is a lack of information on its exact extent. There is a lack of data on trends although this habitat has been studied in detail in some localities. Overall the extent is considered  unlikely to have changed significantly as there is a natural pattern of the creation and loss of rock pools through erosive processes. This habitat is therefore considered stable and assessed as Least Concern under criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
This habitat has a large natural range in the North East Atlantic region extending from the Canaries and Azores in the west to the Skagerrak coast of Sweden in the east.  EOO >50,000 km2 and AOO >50 which exceeds the thresholds for a threatened category on the basis of restricted geographic distribution. Overall the habitat is considered to have been stable  over the last 40 years although localised changes have taken place. The distribution is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B1, B2 & B3.

Criterion C/D Text:
Experts consider there to be insufficient data on which to assess criteria C/D.

Synthesis:
The nature of this habitat means it can be ephemeral and subject to significant natural fluctuations as a result of patterns of erosion and deposition on the shore and climatic conditions. Survey information confirms that this habitat has a widespread distribution in the North East Atlantic. Examples have been studied in detail in some localities and although there have been some changes, overall it is considered to have been stable in extent. It does not have a narrow geographical range and the distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern for both the EU 28 and EU 28+.

Contributors:
North East Atlantic Working Group: N. Sanders, N. Dankers, J. Forde, K. Fürhaupter ,  S. Gubbay, R. Haroun Tabraue, F.Otero-Ferrer, G. Saunders, H. Tyler-Walters.


Habitat Type Name:
G1.1 Temperate and boreal softwood riparian woodland

Habitat Description:
This is riparian woodland occurring on periodically-inundated river terraces of active floodplains with deposition of nutrient-rich alluvium in the boreal, boreo-nemoral, nemoral, submediterranean and steppe zones. Typically, there is a tall canopy dominated by one or a few tree species, commonly Salix alba, sometimes S. fragilis (maybe favouring situations where there is lime-deficiency). Two other trees commonly found here are Populus alba which is really a submediterranean tree but widely planted and naturalised and P. nigra, native in a large part of Europe (from western to central south-eastern part), but also widely planted, though often outnumbered there by hybrids such as P. x euramericana and x canadensis. Typically, alder is absent from the canopy and riparian woodlands where Alnus glutinosa or A. incana form part or all of the tree cover are not included here but with land-upheaval woodlands in G1.2a Alnus woodland on alluvial and mineral soil. There is often a dense understorey of smaller Salix spp., Sambucus nigra and other shrubs beneath the trees, the composition of this layer depending on the local degree of wetness of the ground. Among these, tangles of lianes and sprawlers such as Galium aparine and Solanum dulcamara occur. The field layer is typically dominated by a luxuriant cover of shade-tolerant, nutrient-demanding tall herbs, notably Urtica dioica, in mountain areas also Petastites hybridus, with a carpet of smaller plants beneath. Characteristically, much of the taller herb cover dies back quickly in autumn to leave a patchy carpet of mat-forming bryophytes on exposed mud. After a flood, there can be much woody debris washed in from upstream. This type does not include scrubs dominated by narrow-leaved willows S. eleagnos, S. purpurea and S. viminalis which fall within F9.1 Temperate and boreal riparian scrub.
Indicators of quality:
â— Undisturbed hydrology with natural disturbance, at least periodically inundated with flood waters in uncontrolled stretches of mature rivers, though remnant stands can persist for some time around naturally isolated ox-bows.
Survival of larger stands of forest continuously developed along the rivers without fragmentation and isolation
Few if any signs of exploitation for timber, fallen trees remaining in situ and ample deposition of natural organic debris from flooding.
No signs of eutrophication or pollution by anthropogenically enriched flood-waters, for example excessive spread of nutrient-demanding weeds.
Absence of non-native tree species (Alien Poplar, Robinia pseudoacacia, Acer negundo...) and absence of invasive aliens such as Reynoutria japonica or Impatiens glandulifera.
High diversity of epiphytic bryophytes (eg. Orthotrichum spp.)

Characteristic species:
Tree canopy: Salix alba, Salix dasyclados, Salix eleagnos, Salix fragilis, Salix purpurea, S. viminalis, S. eleagnos Understorey: Crataegus monogyna, Rubus caesius, Salix triandra, Sambucus nigra. Field layer: Aegopodium podagraria, Athyrium filix-femina, Galium aparine, Solanum dulcamara, Glechoma hederaea, Geum urbanum, Poa trivialis, Urtica diocia, Heracleum sphondylium, Carduus personata, Petasites hybridus, Filipendula ulmaria Mosses: Brachythecium rutabulum, Eurhynchium praelongum, Plagiomnium undulatum

Classification:
EUNIS:
G1.1 Temperate and boreal softwood riparian woodland
EuroVegChecklist alliances :
Salicion albae Soó 1951
Rubo caesi-Populion
Annex 1 :
92A0 Salix alba and Populus alba galleries (partly)
91E0 Alluvial forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior (Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae)
Emerald :
G1.11 Riverine Salix woodland
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.1 Boreal Forest
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
12.1 Riparian forest
VME:
U3.1 Hardwood alluvial forests in combination with willow and poplar alluvial forests.

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
It is an azonal type represented in suitable situatiosn across much of temperate Europe.

Map Description:
Map is incomplete in the boreal region and the Balkan (the potential distribution is indicated) and for Portugal. Data sources: EVA, Art17, BOHN, NAT.

Comment EU28:
AOO and EOO incl. potential distribution

Comment EU28+:
AOO and EOO incl. potential distribution

Trends in Quantity:
The average recent past-present trend in extent for the last 50 years is a decrease, which concerns mostly southern europe (including France) and central and eastern Europe. This decrease concerns 16 countries out of 34 (corresponding to 57% of the extent, increase in only 6 countries for 9% of the area, stable in 3 countries for 12% if the area, unknown trend in the rest of Europe)
The worst trend is reported in Czech Republic and Slovakia with a 85 and 60% decline (which would lead to a CR and EN category in those countries). Most countries report a slighter decline in quantity for the last 50 years, except those where the habitat has been removed before the 19th century to enlarge grasslands and is now increasing because of a better protection (increase in Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Ireland, Estonia, stability in the UK or Hungary).
Current trend is a decrease (in EU 28 decreasing on 66 % of the extent, stable in 21%, increasing in only 1% and unknown trend on 13%. ; in EU 28+ decreasing on 67 % of the surface, stable in 16%, increasing in only 1% and unknown trend on 16%).

Trends in Quality:
The average recent past-present trend in quality is a slight to moderate decline (40% in severity) in most countries (20 out of 28 countries), affecting 37.5 % of the extent. The current trend is a decrease in quality in most of the countries, representing more than 95 % of the current areas. A stable trend is only reported in Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Austria, the Netherlands. The trend seems to be even better in Cyprus, Estonia and Latvia. The situation is not clear in France and the trend could be closer to stable today.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Just treating EU28 and EU28+, 85% occurs in the former according to the data provided.  More widely, very roughly, about 50% of the habitat might lie within the EU 28, 5% more in the rest of EU 28+ and the rest in eastern Europe (Former USSR countries).

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is an azonal type with a large EOO although individual stands are often small.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is an azonal type with a large EOO although individual stands are often small.

Pressures and Threats:
The main pressure affecting temperate and boreal softwood riparian woodland is a change in the hydraulic condition, with dams, river regulation and canalisation, hydropower projects causing a lack of flooding and the colonization of hardwood trees (70% of the countries are affected). Flooding is crucial because it rejuvenates both soil and vegetation, depositing silt and debris that fertilises the soils and preventing the softwood stand from maturing toward a hardwood forest.. River regulation and gravel extraction in (or near) the river bed can also cause a drying out. the drop in water level allowing the riparian vegetation to be replaced by a dryer one, with more shade tolerant and long-living trees. Pollution caused by a poor quality of water and the use of pesticides and fertilizers by agriculture in nearby fields, is also a problem (reported in 44 % of the countries).
Invasive non-native species are also a big problem (occuring in 56 % of the reported countries), alien species replacing native ones both in the herb layer (eg. Reynoutria sp., Impatiens glandulifera) and tree layer (eg. Acer negundo, Robinia pseudoacacia, north-American Populus spp.).
Finally, forest clearance mostly for urbanisation(17 %) and forest management (21%) are reported, but might occur less frequently than in hardwood types. Other threats are grazing (7 %) and climate change (7%, with more droughts and less precipitations, or on the contrary more flooding causing more erosion).

Conservation and Management:
The keys to the conservation of temperate and boreal softwood riparian woodland are a strict protection of remaining sites, especially from expansion of land uses for urbanisation and agriculture, but also from Populus plantation, from damming and river regulation, and conservation or improvement of water quality. A free flowing river should experience floods allowing aggradation and nutrient- deposition, soil and vegetation rejenuvation (erosion and destruction of trees).

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
91E0: ATL U2, ALP U2, BLS U1, BOR U2, CON U2, MED U1, PAN U1
92A0: ALP U1, ATL U1, BLS U1, COn U2, MED U2, PAN U1, STE U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Restoration should involve improving the hydrological functioning, by restoring natural river banks and removing dams.

Summary:
This habitat comprises riparian woodland on periodically-inundated river terraces of active floodplains in the boreal, boreo-nemoral, nemoral, submediterranean and steppe zones with deposition of nutrient-rich alluvium. Typically there is a tall species-poor tree canopy, an often dense understorey with lianes and a field layer of nutrient-demanding herbs. Woody flood debris is common. Threats include modification of hydrographic functioning through damming and flood control, urbanisation, agriculture, afforestation, pollution, invasion by alien species and climate change. Conservation measures include maintenance of floodings and natural banks and protection against clearance or reafforestation.

References:
Boeuf R., Durand E , Hauschild R. 2007. Phytoecological approach of the alluvial forest of Rhine river.  Lavoisier SAS. Tous droits réservésTockner K., Uehlinger U., Robinson C.T.. Rivers of Europe. Academic Press, 31 janv. 2009 - 728 pages
Carbiener R., 1970. Un exemple de type forestier exceptionnel pour l'Europe occidentale : la forêt du lit majeur du Rhin au niveau du fossé rhénan (Fraxino-Ulmetum Oberd 53) ; Intérêt écologique et biogéographique ; Comparaison à d'autres forêts thermohygrophiles ; Vegetatio, Acta Geobotanica, 18.3. Vol. 20.
Dynesius M. & Nilsson C. Fragmentation and Flow Regulation of River Systems in the Northern Third of the World. Umeå University, Umeå, Västerbotten, Sweden. Science 11/1994; 266(5186):753-762.
Le Lay Y.-F. & Piégay H. 2007. - Le bois mort dans les paysages fluviaux français : éléments pour une gestion renouvelée, L'Espace géographique 1/2007 (Tome 36), p. 51-64. URL : www.cairn.info/revue-espace-geographique-2007-1-page-51.htm. last accessed : Feb. 19th 2016
Michles, H-G. & Aldinger, E., 2000.- Forstliche Standortsgliederung in der badischen Rheinaue - Allgemeine Forstzeitschrift AFZ Der Wald - Heft 15, Juli 2002 (Seite 811 - 815).Moss T. & Monstadt J. - Restoring Floodplains in Europe:Policy Contexts and Project Experiences. IWA publisher, 320 p.
Schnitzler-Lenoble A. 2007. Forêts alluviales d'Europe. Tec et Doc, Lavoisier. 387 P.

Criterion A Text:
There is overall only slight recent past decline in quantity, but rather different situations are seen between countries: the NT category would be reached in Switzerland, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, VU in Finland, EN in Slovakia and CR in Czech Republic.

Criterion B Text:
Both EOO, AOO and number of locations exceed the limits of vulnerability.

Criterion C/D Text:
The trend in quality for the last 50 years is calculated using territorial data from 88% of the reported area in EU28 and 84% for EU28+.

Synthesis:
Even if the decline in quantity has been slight (-13.4 to -13.8%) for the last 50 years (the current trend is still a decline in most countries), the Near threatened category is reached because of a more than moderate decline in quality (54 to 55 %) on 34 to 35 % of the surface (between 30% and the 50% level that qualifies the Vulnerable category). The situation is very different between countries, and a VU, EN and even CR category would have been reached in some countries (especially in central Europe). In North-western Europe the situation seems to be better. The current trend is still a decline in quality in many countries, except in north-western countries (British Isles, Benelux, Germany).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No sub-habitats have been distinguished for further assessment.

Contributors:
Habitat definition : J. Rodwell & B. Renaux
Territorial data: P.A. Aarrestad, E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, L. Aunina, S. Bagella, R-J. Bijlsma, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, G. Buffa, C. Giancola, J.A. Campos, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, R. Delarze, M. Dimitrov, P. Dimopoulos, P. Finck, D. Gigante, C. Giancola, G. Giusso Del Galdo, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, K.J. Kirby, T. Kontula, C. Marcenò, V. Matevski, N., F. Millaku, B. Nygaard, F. O'Neill, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, S. Sciandrello, V. Sell, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, M. ValachoviÄ, A. Van Braekel, B. Vandevoorde, N. Velkovski, D. Viciani, L. Wibail, W. Willner
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


