# European Red List of Habitats Table

Habitat Type Name:
C2.1b Calcareous spring and spring brook

Habitat Description:
Calcareous springs, spring brooks and tufa cascades of karstic rivers differ from base-poor springs (C2.1a) and spring brooks due to their hard water, caused by the high calcium content. Consequently, the pH is clearly alkaline, (pH 6.5-8.5), and the specific conductivity high. This habitat occurs in areas of calcareous bedrock and soils. It is a naturally rare and nowadays declined habitat, particularly in most of the lowland areas in Europe. In montane and alpine areas calcareous springs are more common, and have remained intact to a greater extent. Calcareous springs are usually occurring as small patches. Tufa waterfalls and cascades are characteristics of watercourses in karstic areas of Europe, especially in the Dinaric Alps. The tufa-deposition and later the travertine formation are organogenic processes dependent by the organisms (bacteria, algae, mosses and plants) growing on the substrate. The periphyton produces mucopolysaccharides in which crystals of calcium carbonates (CaCO3) are trapped. This phenomenon is pronounced in many karstic areas and is very sensitive to natural or anthropogenic changes in water chemistry. In northern, geologically young springs tufa formations are not well-developed, but calcareous gyttja (organic mud) is common in sediments. Calcareous springs, spring brooks and cascades are species-rich habitats with abundant cover of mosses. Beside species in common with base-poor springs (type C2.1a) there is a number of calcium-demanding mosses and vascular plants. A high dominance of the moss Cratoneuron commutatum is often typical. Threats for this habitat type are the same as in base-poor springs; in lowland areas many calcareous springs have been destroyed by forestry and clearing of agricultural land.
Indicators of good quality:
Natural hydrology and water chemistry in springs and spring brooks,
Low anthropogenic influence (drainage, water exploitation, forestry, agriculture, eutrophication etc.) in springs, their surroundings and catchment areas,
Presence of plants and animals adapted to spring conditions, including threatened species,
High cover of mosses and specialized vascular plants,
Absence of invasive alien species.

Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Arabis soyeri, Cardamine spp., Carex atrofusca, C. saxatilis, C. flava aggr., C. capillaris, C. capitata, C. appropinquata, C. acutiformis, C. paniculata, Cochlearia pyrenaica, Deschampsia argentea, Epilobium davuricum, Epilobium spp., Equisetum scirpoides, E. variegatum, Pinguicula vulgaris, Juncus biglumis, J. triglumis, Montia fontana, Oenanthe divaricata, Saxifraga aizoides.
Bryophytes: Aneura pinguis, Brachythecium rivulare, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Catoscopium nigritum, Cinclidium stygium, Cinclidotus fontinaloides, Cratoneuron commutatum, C. falcatum, C. filicinum, C. decipiens, Eucladium verticillatum, Gymnostomum recurviroste, Marcantia spp., Meesia spp., Oncophorus spp., Paludella squarrosa, Pellia spp., Philonotis calcarea, Philonotis spp., Scorpidium revolvens, S. cossoni, Sphagnum spp. (S. wanstorfii, S. subsecundum), Tomentypnum nitens, Warnstorfia spp.
Algae: Chara spp. (C. fragilis, C. aspera).

Classification:
EUNIS:
C2.1 Springs, spring brooks and geysers
EuroVegChecklist (alliances)
Cratoneurion commutati Koch 1926
Lycopo europaei-Cratoneurion commutati Hadac 1983
Adiantion Br.-Bl. ex Horvatic 1934
Pinguiculion longifoliae Fernandez Casas 1970
Deschampsion argenteae Capelo et al. 2000 (Madeiran waterfalls and cascades)
Cinclidotium fontinaloidis Philippi 1956
Charion fragilis Krausch 1964
Annex 1:
7220 Petrifying springs with tufa formation (Cratoneurion)
32A0 Tufa cascades of karstic rivers of the Dinaric Alps
Emerald:
C2.12 Hard water springs
C2.19 Lime rich oligotrophic vegetation of spring brooks
MAES-2:
Rivers and lakes
IUCN:
5.9 Freshwater Springs and Oases

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is widespread in calcareous hilly and mountainous regions in Europe.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete, but data gaps exist in the Balkan and probably in Norway. Data sources: EVA, Art17.

Comment EU28:
Habitat occurs in numerous sites, which are usually very small in size

Comment EU28+:
Habitat occurs in numerous sites, which are usually very small in size

Trends in Quantity:
Many calcareous springs and spring brooks are destroyed in historical times due to land reclamation, drainage, ground water abstraction, and pollution. This trend has continued during the recent past (last 50-60 years). In many countries, decline has been 20 to 40 % over that period. In future the total area of calcareous spring habitats may further decrease, but likely more slowly compared to the past trend. The total area of the habitat is difficult to estimate, partly because different methods have been used in countries in estimating the habitat area. It may be 150 - 250 km2 in EU28.

Trends in Quality:
The quality of calcareous spring habitats declined in historical periods in many countries, as well as over the 50 last years. The severity of degradation has been estimated to be moderate to severe in most countries. This degradation may continue in the future.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
5-10%. Calcareous springs and spring brooks are cosmopolitan habitats occurring in areas with suitable bedrock and soils. As large parts of other continents are dry, the proportion of these habitats in Europe may be higher than Europe´s share of all terrestrial areas.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
Calcareous springs, spring brooks and tufa cascades have undergone severe losses in quantity in many countries historically and also in the recent past, but they still have a very large distribution range.

Justification of Restricted Area:
Total area of calcareous spring habitats is small in most countries, and most occurrences are very small in size, often only some tens of square meters. They occur only in areas with calcium rich bedrock (limestone, dolomite) and soils. The tufa cascad

Pressures and Threats:
Calcareous springs and spring brooks are small scale habitats occurring as patches in a wider landscape. Depending on regional and local circumstances (relief, ground water) they are subjected to different natural and human-caused pressures. Since historical times these habitats have been influenced by groundwater abstraction, land reclamation, drainage and other changes in hydrology, and many kinds of pollution. These pressures caused a decline in the quantity of springs, as well as deterioration of their quality. Relatively early many calcareous springs with their surroundings were lost in many lowland areas. The same trend has continued the last 50 years as well. Nutrient loading, particularly nitrogen, has increased, largely by diffuse loading of nutrients from agriculture and forestry, or airborne nutrient input. Both hydrological changes and increasing nutrient load result in succesion (replacement of spring vegetation by more productive plant communities). The climate change may enhance this in future. Mining and sand or soil excavation can be locally important threats. In general, these pressures have been much stronger in spring habitats in lowland areas than in mountains. In north European and in alpine areas many calcareous spring habitats are still in a good state.

Conservation and Management:
Maintaining natural hydrology and control of eutrophication and other pollution are crucial for conservation of calcareous springs, spring brooks and tufa cascades. Water protection measures are needed in catchment areas of these groundwater habitats. Calcareous springs are small-scale habitats (often only a few to some tens of square meters), therefore their specialized flora and fauna are sensitive to various changes, including stochastic ones. As the catchments of springs in some lowlands may be very large, conservation measures for restoring or maintaining water quality and quantity may be needed in a large area. Most representative sites should be legally protected, and they should be taken into account in agriculture, forestry and other land use in the area.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
7220:  ALP U1, ATL U2, BLS U1, BOR U1, CON U1, MED U2, PAN U1.
32AO (Tufa cascades) is missing from the reporting tables.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Calcareous spring habitats have some capacity to recover, but in most cases interventions related to restoration of hydrology, control of nutrient loads and other pollution are required, particularly if there is intensive land use in the surrounding areas. Fauna and flora of calcareous spring habitats require specific management and restoration measures. Restrictions in land use (including recreational activities) in surroundings of these habitats are often needed.

Summary:
Calcareous springs, spring brooks and associated tufa cascades occur across Europe in areas with calcareous bedrock and soil where surface discharge is of hard water. They are numerous, but usually small in size and have a distinctive and often rich flora of moss carpets and calcicolous herbs with distinctive invertebrates. Widely threatened away from far northern and high altitude situations, land reclamation, drainage, groundwater abstraction and eutrophication are the main dangers. Restoration demands recovery of the natural hydrology.,

References:
Dierssen, K. 1996. Vegetation Nordeuropas. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. 838 pp.
Emeis, K.C., Richnow, H.H., Kempe, S. 1987. Travertine formation in Plitvice National Park, Yugoslavia: Chemical versus biological control. Sedimentology 34: 595-609.
Leka, J. et al. 2008. Sisävedet ja rannat [Inland waters]. In Raunio, A., Schulman, A. & Kontula, T. (eds.), Suomen luontotyyppien uhanalaisuus [Assessment of threatened habitat types in Finland]. Osa 2. Luontotyyppien kuvaukset [Part 2. Habitat type descriptions]. Suomen Ympäristö / The Finnish Environment 8/2008: 89-142.
Lindgaard, A. & Henriksen, S. (eds.) 2011. The 2011 Norwegian Red List for Ecosystems and Habitat types. Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre. Trondheim. 122. pp.
Påhlsson, I. (ed.) 1994. Vegetationstyper i Norden. TemaNord 1994: 665. 626 pp.

Criterion A Text:
The quantitative analyses in the last 50 years is based on 12 EU28 countries leads to an average decline of 23%. However, for several countries some data is lacking, some countries report large decline ranges (for example Austria 25-55%, Germany 50-70%), and besides provided data on the area is very uncertain. Therefore the trend is seen as indicative, and an uncertainty range around it would include the 25-30% threshold range for the category Near Threatened. Data from only two additional EU28+ country (Bosnia & Herzegovina) suggests a lower trend on the Balkan, but large declines (-80%) in Switzerland. As most area is found in the EU28, we conclude "Near Threatened" for EU28+ as well. The loss during last centuries has been severe (Criterion A3) with a least 7 countries reporting trends between 50 and 90 percent. An average trend of -70% would qualify for the category Endangered (EN). As these data are derived from a limited number of countries the trend is indicative, and the more conservative conclusion for A3 is Vulnerable.

Criterion B Text:
The range (EOO), distribution (AOO) and number of locations of this habitat are all much larger than the thresholds, and therefore evaluation of B-criteria leads to the conclusion Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
Qualitative data of current degraded area were derived from 15 countries (13 in the EU28), the severity of degradation from 17 countries (15 in the EU28). Data for quantitative analysis combining extent and severity of degradation were available from only 7 countries in the EU28. Data from two countries outside the EU 28 is too limited to make a proper additional analysis for the EU28+. Although the resulting trend has some uncertainty as well (especially due to the area estimates), we conclude a Vulnerable (VU) status for both EU28 and EU28+.

Synthesis:
There has been a clear trend of degradation of quality in calcareous springs, spring brooks and tufa cascades in the EU28 during the last 50 years. In quantitative terms the negatively affected part of the area is 50% with a relatively large severity of degradation (58%). This leads to the category Vulnerable (VU) based on trend in quality over the last 50 years (criterion C/D1). The decrease of the area in the recent past is in a range around 23%, qualifying the habitat to the category Near Threatened (NT). The habitat has likely declined up to 70% in area over a longer time period (last centuries), but data exist only from a limited number of countries, leading to a conservative conclusion of Vulnerable. The overall threat category is the same in the EU28+ as most reported occurrences of the habitat are situated in EU28 countries.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Calcareous springs, spring brooks and tufa cascades are defined as a broad habitat type representing a lot of regional and local variation, with many localised fauna species. Alpine springs and spring brooks should be assessed separately from the lowla

Contributors:
Type description: H. Toivonen
Territorial data: S. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, G. Arts, S. Assini, F. Attorre, ABG. Averis, AM. Averis, S. Bagella, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Brophy, G. Buffa, A. Carni, L. Casella, J-M. Couvreur, R. Delarze, L. Denys, P. Finck, D. Gigante, G. Giussa del Galdo, P. Ivanov, J. Janssen, N. Juvan, G. Király, M. Koci, T. Kontula, C. Marcenò, A. Mikolajczak, J.A. Molina, B. Nygaard, D. Paelinckx, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, V. Rasomavicius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, J. Sibik, Z. Skvorc, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, D. Viciani.    
Working Group Freshwater Habitats: G. Arts, B. Poulin, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina, H. Toivonen.


Habitat Type Name:
G1.3 Mediterranean and Macaronesian riparian woodland

Habitat Description:
These are broadleaved deciduous woodlands of periodically- or seasonally-flooded alluvial or gravelly deposits in river valleys and along streamsides within the Mediterranean and Macaronesian regions. Typical of humid localities within the thermo- and meso-Mediterranean belts, this habitat has been long exploited for being an easy source of firewood and widely lost from the middle and lower reaches of rivers, often surviving now as more fragmentary relict stands in deeper steep-sided valleys extending upstream into the submediterranean zone. Dominance can be of a single tree species, among which Populus alba and, in Sicily, the Balkans and Greece, Platanus orientalis are the most widespread and these fast-growing trees can attain a huge size in a very tall canopy. To the east also, Populus canescens, P. nigra and P. tremula can be prominent along with P. alba while, on Rhodes, Liquidambar orientalis dominates in gallery woodlands of this kind. Also included here are woodlands with Rhododendron ponticum ssp. baeticum and Betula parvibracteata (a synonym of B. pendula subsp. fontqueri var. parvibracteata) that occur in riparian situations in the Iberian peninsula. Generally, Fraxinus angustifolia, F. ornus, Salix alba, S. eleagnos, Alnus glutinosa are common associates and can be locally prominent and where Salix spp, dominate in riparian woodlands in the Mediterranean and Macaronesia, they are included here and not in G1.1 Riparian and gallery woodland. Other woody species, sub-shrubs and lianas associated with this habitat are Frangula alnus, Salix atrocinerea, Juglans regia, Crataegus monogyna, Cornus sanguinea, Nerium oleander, Vitex agnus-castus, Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris, Rubus subsp., Rosa sempervirens, Hedera helix, Clematis vitalba. The field layer shares some species with the equivalent habitat type, G1.2 hardwood riparian woodland in the temperate and boreal zone, but more distinctive here are Aristolochia grandiflora, Cyclamen hederifolium, C. repandum, C. creticum, Galanthus nivalis subsp. reginae-olgae, Dracunculus vulgaris and Arum italicum. The associated fern, bryophyte and lichen floras can be very species-rich and especially luxuriant in deep humid gorges.
Indicators of good quality:
Intact natural hydrology
Natural composition of canopy
Structural diversity/ complexity with (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers
Typical flora and fauna composition of the region
Presence of natural disturbance such as treefall openings with natural regeneration
Survival of larger stands of forest without anthropogenic fragmentation and isolation (to support fauna which need large undisturbed forests)
Absence of non-native species in all layers (flora & fauna)
No signs of pollution

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Alnus glutinosa, Fraxinus angustifolia, Platanus orientalis, Populus nigra, P. alba, Salix alba, Ulmus minor, Arum italicum, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bryonia cretica subsp. dioica, Carex pendula, Clematis vitalba, Crataegus monogyna, Galium aparine, Hedera helix, H. maroccana, Lonicera periclymenum, Oenanthe crocata, Rubus ulmifolius, Salix atrocinerea, Tamus communis, Urtica dioica, Athyrium filix-femina, Pteridium aquilinum.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G1.3 Mediterranean riparian woodland
G1.1 Riparian and gallery woodland. The Salix-dominated woodlands of the Mediterranean from this latter EUNIS habitat are included here.
EuroVegChecklist:
Populion albae Br.-Bl. ex Tchou Yen-Tcheng 1949
Salicion albae Soò 1951
Osmundo-Alnion glutinosae (Br.-Bl. et al. 1956) Dierschke et Rivas-Mart. in Rivas-Mart. 1975
Rhododendro pontici-Prunion lusitanicae A.V. Pérez, Galán et Cabezudo in A.V. Pérez et al. 1999
Platanion orientalis I. Kárpáti et V. Kárpáti 1961
Lauro nobilis-Fraxinion angustifoliae I. Kárpáti et Kárpáti 1961
Salicion canariensis Rivas-Mart. et al. ex Rivas-Mart., Fernández González et Loidi 1999
Annex 1:
92B0 Riparian formations on intermittent Mediterranean water course with Rhododendron ponticum, Salix and others
92C0 Platanus orientalis and Liquidambar orientalis woods (Platanion orientalis)
92A0 Salix alba and Populus alba galleries
Emerald:
G1.11 Riverine Salix woodland
G1.13 Southern Alnus and Betula galleries
G1.3 Mediterranean riparian woodland
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
12.3 Mediterranean and Macaronesian riparian forest
VME:
U4 Mediterranean-subMediterranean wet lowland alluvial forest & scrub

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
In the Mediterranean zone this habitat type characterizes azonal vegetation.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, with possible data gaps for the Balkan. Data sources: EVA, Art17, BOHN, EXP, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
The area of this habitat is decreasing everywhere in Europe. Only for Greece and Cyprus an increasing/stable trend has been reported.

Trends in Quality:
Based on the calculation of the extent and severity of degradation respectively of 61% and 54%, the current quality trend is considered declining. Not enough data are reported to estimate the historical and future quality trend.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The worldwide distribution is about 50% in the EU28 countries, it is also present in Middle East, North Africa and limiting areas of the Euro-Siberian region.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO is far greater than 50.000 Km2, even considering the reduction of about 10-20% reported for several countries as Spain, Bosnia and Portugal.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The Habitat it is quite widespread across Europe with significant area for several countries as Italy, France, Greece and Spain.

Pressures and Threats:
Major threats to this habitat type are due to human induced changes in hydraulic conditions (i.e. constrained water courses), spread of alien species, bio-fuel production, impacts of agricultural activities.

Conservation and Management:
The main approach for the conservation of this habitat type is currently the inclusion in protected areas. Additional actions to be undertaken include: maintenance of the spatial integrity of the habitat within the landscape; minimization of edge disturbance; maintenance of natural river hydrological regime; no forestry exploitation, usually for soft timber, wood or paper pulp.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
92A0: ALP U1, ATL U1, BLS U1, CON U2, MED U2, PAN U1, STE U1
92B0 : MED U1
92C0 : ALP U1, CON U1, MED U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The intrinsic resilience of the habitat makes not necessary specific actions, but ceasing disturb.

Summary:
This habitat of broadleaved deciduous woodlands of periodically- or seasonally-flooded alluvial or gravelly deposits in river valleys and along streamsides is typical of humid localities within the thermo- and meso-Mediterranean belts and Macaronesia. Populus spp. and Platanus orientalis are the commonest trees with different associates in the various regions but are typically fast-growing, forming a tall canopy, with an understorey beneath. The herb layer can be rich and the fern, bryophyte and lichen floras can be especially diverse and luxuriant in deep humid gorges. Major pressures are related to human activities such as agriculture or modification of the hydrogeological conditions. Conservation demands maintenance or restoration of the natural hydrological conditions and protection against alternative land use and development. However, as the habitat mainly include annual, pioneer, well adapted species to shoreline dynamics, it could recover naturally from modest damage.

References:
Amigo, J., Izco, J., & Romero, I. (2004). Swamp alder woodlands in Galicia (NW Spain): phytosociological interpretation. Ecological and floristic contrast to western European swamp woodlands and delimitation versus riparian alder woodlands in southern Europe and northern Africa. Phytocoenologia, 34(4), 613-638.
Costa, J. C., Neto, C., Capelo, J., Lousã, M., & Rivas-Martinez, S. (2011). A global view on the riparian forests with Salix neotricha and Populus alba in the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain). Plant Biosystems-An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology, 145(3), 553-569.
Gradstein, S. R., & Smittenberg, J. H. (1977). The hydrophilous vegetation of western Crete. Vegetatio, 34(2), 65-86.
Pedrotti, F., & Gafta, D. (1992). Tipificazione di tre nuove associazioni forestali ripariali nell’Italia meridionale. Doc. Phytosoc, 14, 557-560.
Gafta, D., & Pedrotti, F. (1996). Ecologia delle foreste riparali e paludose dell’Italia. L’uomo e l’ambiente, 23: 1-163.
Schaminée, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell, J.S. (2013), Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Yen-Tcheng, Tchou. (1948). Études écologiques et phytosociologiques sur les forets riveraines du Bas-Languedoc (Populetum albae). Vegetatio, 2-28.
Zogaris, S., Chatzinikolaou, Y., & Dimopoulos, P. (2008). Riparian woodland flora in upland rivers of Western Greece. Mediterranean Marine Science, 9(2), 87-102.

Criterion A Text:
The average trends have been calculated based on data from 7 countries, from which one is outside the EU28.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat is widespread with an EOO,AOO and number of locations far larger than the thresholds for criteria B. The reported decline does not significantly effect these figures.

Criterion C/D Text:
Trends have been calculated using territorial data from 7 countries, three from outside the EU28.

Synthesis:
The habitat type is considered Vulnerable (VU) based on extent and severity of degradation affecting a large part of its European range, particularly in Italy, France and Spain. This result is confirmed by the assessment of the equivalent Annex I types, that have been reported to be in an overall unfavourable conservation status.

Contributors:
Type description: Rodwell J.S.
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, O. Argagnon, S. Bagella, J.A. Campos, J. Capelo, L. Casella, M. Dimitrov, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, C. Marcenò, V. Matevski, G. Pezzi, S. Sciandrello, V. Stupar. N. Velkovski, D. Viciani
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
A1.34: Communities of sheltered Mediterranean lower mediolittoral rock

Habitat Description:
This habitat develops on the lower horizon of mediolittoral rock in areas sheltered from wave action and currents although some of the associated species may also thrive on moderately exposed shores. The rock surfaces are dominated by algae, the characteristic species depending on the local conditions. In areas of gently almost horizontal slopes, the red algae Ceramium ciliatum can form an almost continuous carpet. There may be distinctive crusts of the brown algae Nemoderma tingitatum on the smooth rocky shores where there is moderate to low wave action, and in nutrient enriched areas the green algae of the genus Ulva dominates and may exclude settlement of other species of algae.
Indicators of quality:
The only biotope which might be sensitive to pollution and man-induced impacts is that dominated by Nemoderma tingitanum. Reduction in the total percent cover of this species and overall species richness can indicate a decrease on ecological quality. Both the biotopes of Ceramium ciliatum and Ulva spp. show extraordinary resilience to environmental impacts and they appear even in degraded environments. A "Quality of Rocky Bottoms index" (CFR by its Spanish acronym) used in Spanish Atlantic waters for the assessment of macroalgae communities on rocky shores may have some potentially application in assessment of quality of this habitat.
Characteristic species:
Rhodophyta (red algae)- Ceramium ciliatum, Corallina elongata, Hypnea musciformis, Gelidium pusillum, Callithamnion granulatum, Gastroclonium clavatum, Laurencia pyramidalis, Ceramium diaphanum, Polysiphonia sertularioides.
Phaeophyta (brown algae)- Nemoderma tingitanum, Scytosiphon lomentaria, Sphacelaria cirrosa.
Chlorophyta (green algae)- Ulva prolifera, Ulva compressa, Ulva intestinalis, Ulva fasciata, Ulva rigida, Cladophora albida, Cladophora sericea, Cladophora vagabunda, Chaetomorpha aerea, Cladophora dalmaica, Cladophora laetevirens.
Cnidaria- Actinia schmidti.
Bivalvia- Mytilus galloprovincialis.
Gastropoda- Patella ulyssiponensis, Patella caerulea, Phorcus turbinatus, Stramonita haemastoma, Phorcus articulatus.
Cirripedia- Chthamalus montagui.
Isopoda- Ligia italica.
Decapoda- Pachygrapsus marmoratus.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405).
Level 4. A sub-habitat of A1.3 Low energy littoral rock.
Annex 1:
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays
1170 Reefs
MAES:
Marine - Inlets and transitional waters
Marine – Coastal
MSFD:
Littoral rock and biogenic reef
EUSeaMap:
Not mapped
IUCN:
12.1 Rocky shoreline
Barcelona Convention (RAC/SPA):
II. 4. 2. Biocenosis of the lower mediolittoral rock

Trends in Quantity:
This habitat is common along Mediterranean shores and is widely distributed. Nevertheless, research and monitoring has only been carried out at a few sites and there are no reports on the trends in loss of this habitat from individual countries. The quantity of loss of the habitat can be inferred from the amount of coastal construction (such as breakwaters, harbours, jetties and seawalls) since the second half of the 20th century for EU 28 which suggests approximately 20% has been lost from rocky shorelines overall. The proportion of loss specifically for this sheltered rocky habitat is unknown.

Trends in Quality:
There is insufficient information to determine any trends in quality of this habitat.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
This habitat is present in the EU 28+. The percentage is unknown.

Pressures and Threats:
The main pressures and threats on this habitat are associated with substratum loss due to direct destruction by human modifications of the coastline from building and harbour development, poor water quality, and marine debris.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is widespread and common and therefore likely to be present within some protected areas although it may not be subject to specific conservation measures. Beneficial actions include those which improve water quality and the regulation of coastal development in order to avoid both direct and indirect damage. Further work is needed to identify management measures to support the conservation of this habitat including the establishment of reference sites to assist with monitoring trends.

Summary:
This habitat is widely distributed in the Mediterranean in sheltered rocky areas. The rock surfaces are dominated by algae, the characteristic species depending on the local conditions. The main pressures and threats are associated with substratum loss due to direct destruction by human modifications of the coastline from building and harbour development, poor water quality and marine debris. Beneficial actions include those which improve water quality and the regulation of coastal development. Further work is needed to identify management measures to support the conservation of this habitat including the establishment of reference sites to assist with monitoring trends.

References:
Ballesteros, E. 1984. Els estatges supralitoral i mediolitoral de les Illes Medes. In: Els sistemes naturals de les Illes Medes (eds. J. Ros, I. Olivella & J.M. Gili). Arxius Secció Ciències, 73: 647-659. IEC. Barcelona.
Ballesteros, E. 1992. Els vegetals i la zonació litoral: espècies, comunitats i factors que influeixen en la seva distribució. Arxius Secció Ciències, 101. Institut d'Estudis Catalans. Barcelona. 616 pp.
Ballesteros, E., S. Mariani, M.E. Cefalì, M. Terradas & E. Chappuis. 2014. Manual dels hàbitats litorals a Catalunya. Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Territori i Sostenibilitat, Barcelona. 251 pp.
EEA, 1999. State and pressures of the marine and coastal Mediterranean environment. ISBN: 92-9167-187-8. 43pp.
Feldmann, J. 1937. Recherches sur la végétation marine de la Méditerranée: la côte des Albères. Revue Algologique, 10: 1-339.
Molinier, R. 1960. Étude des biocoenoses marines du Cap Corse. Vegetatio, 9: 120-192.
Pérès, J.M. & J. Picard. 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique de la Mer Méditerranée. Recueil des Travaux Statione Marine d’Endoume, 31(47): 3-137.
Piante C., Ody D.,2015. Blue Growth in the Mediterranean Sea: the Challenge of Good Environmental Status. MedTrends Project. WWF-France. 192 pages.
Pons, A. and Rullan, O. 2013. Artificialization and Islandness in Coastal Areas of Western Mediterranean Europe With special attention to the Spanish tourist coast. International Geographical Union. Commission on Islands Proceedings of the International Conference on ‘Island Development. Local Economy, Culture,
Innovation and Sustainability’, 1 - 5 October 2013, Penghu Archipelago, Taiwan. P71- P7-12.
Rodríguez-Prieto, C., E. Ballesteros, F. Boisset & J. Afonso-Carrillo. 2013. Guía de las macroalgas y fanerógamas marinas del Mediterráneo Occidental. Omega, Barcelona. 656 pp.
Templado, J., E. Ballesteros, I. Galparsoro, A. Borja, A. Serrano, L. Marín & A. Brito. 2012. Guía interpretativa: Inventario español de hábitats marinos. Inventario español de hábitats y especies marinos. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. 229 pp.
UNEP/MAP: State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environment, UNEP/MAP – Barcelona Convention, Athens, 2012.

Criterion A Text:
Based on the information available it is inferred that by 2015 at least 20% of this habitat had been lost over the last 50 years in the EU 28. This is primarily due to coastal development. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria A1 for EU 28 and Data Deficient for the EU 28+.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat has a widespread distribution in the Mediterranean Sea, with an EOO larger than 50,000 km2 and an AOO larger than 50 km2, exceeding the thresholds for a threatened Category even though a continuing decline in the spatial extent is considered likely. The distribution of the habitat is such that the identified threats are unlikely to affect all localities at once. This habitat has therefore been assessed as Least Concern under criteria B for the EU 28 and under criteria B1c, B2c and B3 for the EU 28+ and Data Deficient for all other criteria,

Criterion C/D Text:
The assessment of reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality is not possible due to the lack of studies and data on past state conditions. However, the increasing urbanization of the Mediterranean coast will continue have a slight to moderate impact of this habitat although the extent affected is unknown. Since there are no studies available on the past and current conditions to calculate the reductions in abiotic and/or biotic quality, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion C/D, C and D.

Synthesis:
This habitat has a wide geographical distribution but despite most of the Mediterranean coast being rocky, quantitative data on its extent is scarce. Given the past development of harbours, dikes and others coastal structures it is clear that the habitat has suffered a decline in extent. Expert opinion is that this has probably not exceeded 20% over the last 50 years and therefore the habitat is assessed as Least Concern for the EU 28 based on criteria A1 and B.
For EU28+, the habitat has a large EOO, and therefore it qualifies as Least Concern under Criterion B. However, the habitat is assessed as Data Deficient at EU 28+ level given the lack of information on its trends in quantity and quality and the fact that its overall distribution is unknown.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The biotope dominated by Nemoderma tingitanum because of its sensitivity to pollution.

Contributors:
S. Mariani, E. Ballesteros, M. Elena Cefalì, E. Alcazar.


Habitat Description:
Conifer scrub dominated by Pinus mugo (krummholz) occurring in the mountains of central and southeastern Europe above the timberline. This scrub is usually 0.5-3 m tall, depending on the wind exposure of the site and the height of winter snow cover. It occurs on Podzols or Leptosols over both calcareous and siliceous bedrock. On calcareous substrates Pinus mugo can be accompanied by Rhododendron hirsutum, Rhodothamnus chamaecistus or Sorbus chamaemespilus, in wetter places by Alnus viridis. Species composition of the herb and moss layer depends on the bedrock type and adjacent vegetation. Herb layer tends to be more species-rich on calcareous substrates. Dwarf shrubs such as Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis-idaea and lichens of the genera Cladonia and Cetraria are common especially on acidic bedrock. Bryophytes such as Pleurozium schreberi often reach a high cover. This scrub occurs in the Hercynic mountains of central Europe, Eastern Alps, Carpathians, Central Apennines, Dinaric Alps and high mountains of the Balkan Peninsula. These areas represent its entire geographical range globally. Near the northern limit of its range in the Hercynic mountains, the belt with Pinus mugo scrub occurs at altitudes of 1200-1450 m, while it ascends up to 2500 m in the Balkans. In the Alps Pinus mugo scrub occurs mainly in the oceanic north-eastern and south-eastern parts of the mountain range, while it is rare in the Central Alps. On talus slopes Pinus mugo scrub can occur also below the timberline. Pinus mugo scrub on peatlands does not belong to this habitat type. Under natural conditions, Pinus mugo scrub can be both tall and dense or short and open. It can be both species-rich and very species-poor. None of these characteristics indicates habitat quality.
The following characteristics can be considered as indicators of good quality:
• No visible disturbance by trampling, skiing, cutting or burning;
• Absence of ruderal, nutrient-demanding species;
• No indication of scrub origin through planting, especially in places where it is not native.
Characteristic species:
Flora, Vascular plants: Adenostyles alliariae, Alnus viridis, Athyrium distentifolium, Avenella flexuosa, Bruckenthalia spiculifolia, Calamagrostis arundinacea, C. villosa, Daphne oleoides, Dryas octopetala, Erica carnea, Gentiana punctata, Homogyne alpina, Juniperus communis subsp. alpina, Pinus mugo (dom.), Rhododendron ferrugineum, R. hirsutum, R. myrtifolium, Rhodothamnus chamaecistus, Sesleria comosa, Solidago virgaurea, Sorbus aucuparia, S. chamaemespilus, Trientalis europaea, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. uliginosum, V. vitis-idaea
Mosses: Dicranum scoparium, Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi, Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus
Lichens: Cetraria islandica, Cladina spp., Cladonia spp.

Classification:
EUNIS:
F2.3 Subalpine deciduous scrub
EuroVegChecklist:
Pinion mugo PawÅ‚owski et al. 1928
Pino mugo-Ericion Leibundgut 1948
Epipactido atropurpureae-Pinion mugo Stanisci 1997
Hyperico grisebachii-Pinion mugo ÄŒarni et Mucina 2014
Annex 1:
4070* Bushes with Pinus mugo and Rhododendron hirsutum (Mugo-Rhododendretum hirsuti)
Emerald:
F2.41 Inner Alpine Pinus mugo scrub
F2.42 Outer Alpine Pinus mugo scrub
F2.43 Southwestern Pinus mugo scrub
F2.44 Apennine Pinus mugo scrub
F2.45 Hercynian Pinus mugo scrub
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.4 Temperate shrub

Map Description:
The map is rather complete. Data sources: EVA, NAT. Data sources: EVA, ART17, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
Quantitative past data are not available, but a stable trend in the distribution area has been observed by the territorial experts. Until the middle of the last century, the communities of Dwarf pine were set on fire in order to livestock grazing. Nowadays, they are destroyed as a result of the construction of ski tracks, tow-lifts and other tourist infrastructure.

Trends in Quality:
After cessation of periodic burning it is observed a relatively rapid recovery of the area. The coenoses of the Dwarf pine are cut down for construction of ski tracks, tow-lifts and other tourist infrastructure

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
After discontinuation of periodic burning it is observed a relatively rapid recovery of the area.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is restricted by abiotic factors in subalpine areas only.

Pressures and Threats:
The main causes of decrease are: Fires, Cutting, Tourism, Climate change

Conservation and Management:
After cessation of periodic burning it is observed a relatively rapid recovery of the area. The coenoses of the Dwarf pine are cut down for construction of ski tracks, tow-lifts and other tourist infrastructure. Decrease is due to road and skiing complexes construction. The habitat does not require special conservation measures.However it is necessary to avoid deforestation and burning of the Dwarf pine.

Conservation Status:
4070* Bushes with Pinus mugo and Rhododendron hirsutum (Mugo-Rhododendretum hirsuti)

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat is able to restore naturally, even within relatively short periods.

Summary:
Conifer krummholz scrub dominated by Pinus mugo occurs above the timberline and on subalpine screes in the mountains of central and southeastern Europe, on both calcareous and siliceous bedrock. It can be short or tall, closed or open and other shrubs, sub-shrubs and herbaceous associates vary according to soil acidity and wetness. Recovery after periodic burning can be rapid and the scrub can spread into abandoned pastures but a lasting threat is clearance for tourist developments. Careful planning and avoiding burning are the best conservation measures.

References:
Šibík, J., Šibíková, I. & Kliment, J. 2010. The subalpine Pinus mugo communities of the Carpathians with a European perspective. Phytocoenologia 40: 155–188.
Sanda, V., Barabas, N. & Bita-Nicolae, C., 2005. Breviar privind parametrii structurali si caracteristicile ecologice ale fitocenozelor din Romania. Part I. Ion Borcea Press. Bacau, Romania.
Chytrý, M. (2013, ed.). Vegetation of the Czech Republic. 4. Forest and scrub vegetation. Academia Praha, Prague. 
Rodwell, J.S. (1992, ed.). British Plant communities Volume 3. Grasslands and montane communities. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Criterion A Text:
The average European trend over the last 50 years has been calculated from territorial data of 15 countries. The relatively small decline leads to the conclusion Least Concern (LC).

Criterion B Text:
AOO, EOO and number of locations are well above the thresholds for criteria under B, leading to the conclusion Least Concern (LC).

Criterion C/D Text:
Calculation of the trend in quality is based on quantitative data from 10 countries. On average a relatively small decline in quality took place, leading to a Least Concern assessment.

Synthesis:
The Red List criteria qualify this habitat for a Least Concern (LC) status as there is only a small negative trend in quantity and in quality over the last 50 years, and the habitat is relative widely distributed.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No sub-habitats need to be distinguished for further analysis.

Contributors:
Habitat Definition: M. Chytrý
Territorial data: R.Delarze, D. Paternoster, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, M. Dimitrov, M. Chytrý, C. Bita-Nicolae, A. ÄŒarni, Juvan, Škvorc, A. Mikolajczak, J. Šibík, A. Ssymank, P. Finck, U. Raths, U. Riecken, G. Buffa, S. Assini, S. Armiraglio, V. Matevski, N. Velkovski.
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidi


Habitat Type Name:
A5.51 Rhodolith beds in the Mediterranean

Habitat Description:
Mediterranean rhodolith beds could be found between 20-150 m depth in normal marine conditions. The most common species is Lithothamnion corallioides and Phymatolithon calcareum is recorded less frequently. Different dominant species characterize the Mediterranean rhodolith beds, probably on the basis of biogeography and local environmental conditions.Characteristic associations include: Association with rhodoliths in coarse sands and fine gravels under the influence of bottom currents; and Association with rhodoliths on coastal detritic bottoms.
Rhodolith beds are defined by those sedimentary bottoms characterised by any morphology and species of unattached nongeniculate calcareous red algae (incompletely-coated grains excluded) with >10% of live cover. They occur in coarse clean sediments of gravels, clean sands and coastal detritic areas under the influence of bottom currents, which occur either on the open coast or in tide-swept channels of marine inlets (the latter often stony).
In general, fluent unidirectional hydrodynamism and laminar currents affect the seafloor. In the Mediterranean, the most favourable environment for this habitat to occur in biotopes with laminar bottom currents with a regular course. Changes in hydrodynamic conditions and intensity of light differentiate the presence of different associations, particularly in the community of the coastal detritic bottoms (circalittoral). The most frequent species of epiflora are Arthrocladia villosa and Sporochnus pedunculatus. Differences in intensity and typology of hydrodynamism and in species composition are able to determine differences in the growth form, structure and shape of the rhodoliths that can be summarized into three main morphologies: small and compact pralines, unattached branches, and large, irregular, boxwork rhodoliths. In the lower infralittoral zone this assemblage forms patches of organogenous pebbles of branched rhodoliths in various development stages. In the circalittoral zone the free calcareous algae formation can cover up to several square kilometres. Rhodolith beds can be considered as authentic carbonate factories, since they are among the highest producers of biogenic particles in European seas. The living part of the association is limited only to the surface of some centimetres of thickness. Subhabitat scomposed of non-nucleated, unattached growths of branching, twig-like coralline can be distinguished as maerl beds.
Characteristic species
Macroalgae:
Rhodophyceae, Lithothamniom corallioides, Phymatolithon calcareum, Neogoniolithon brassica-florida,  Mesophyllum lichenoides, Peyssonnelia rosa-marina, Peyssonnelia bornetii , Peyssonnelia rubra,  Peyssonnelia squamaria, Peyssonnelia squamaria, Sporolithon ptychoides, Spongites fruticulosus, Neogoniolithon mamillosum, Mesophyllum macedonis , Mesophyllum alternans, Mesophyllum lichenoides, Lithophyllum racemosum, Lithothamnion valens, Lithothamnion minervae ,Lithothamnion crispatum ,Lithophyllum frondosum, Lithophyllum cabiochae, Leogoniolithon mamillosum, Lithophyllum racemus , Pseudolithophyllum expansum, Titanoderma pustulatum, Osmundaria volubilis, Osmundea pelagosae, Acrothamnion preissii (Exotic), Dasya rigidula, Polysiphonia subulifera, Womersleyella setacea (Exotic), Stylonema alsidii, Polysiphonia subulifera, Rodriguezelletum strafforellii.
Chlorophyta:
Valonia macrophysa, Palmophyllum crassum, Flabellia petiolata, Codium bursa, Dictyota dichotoma, Halimeda tuna, Fucophyceae, Cystoseira spinosa, Cystoseira zosteroides, Cystoseira corniculata, Sargassum hornschuchii.
Bivalve:
Gonilia calliglypta, Pteromeris minuta.
Gastropoda:
Bittium latreilli
Crustacea:
Cestopagurus timidus, Lysianassa costae, Ceradocus semiserratus, Maera grossimana, Calcinus tubularis, Galathea intermedia, Athanas nitescens, Cheirocratus sundevallii, Anapagus breviaculeatus, Socarnes filicornis, Amphitoe ramondi, Leptochelia savignyi.
Polychaete:
Lysidice ninetta, Eunice vittata, Nereis rava.
Sypuncula:
Aspidosiphon (A.) muelleri.
Fishes :
Scorpaena notata, Mullus barbatus, Mullus surmuletus , Pagellus erythrinus, Epinephelus marginatus, Sciaena umbra, , Coris julis, Dentex dentex, Symphodus mediterraneus, Symphodus tinca, Diplodus vulgaris, Apogon imberbis, Chromis chromis, Labrus merula.
Indicators of quality
Surface area of the rhodolith bed, an area of> 500 sq m represents a well surface covered bed, high percentage cover by live rhodoliths with >50%, the thickness of the live layer of the rhodolith bed (superposed live rhodoliths), providing 3-D structure, high biodiversity of the habitat-engineers (coralline algae or calcareous Peyssonnelia spp.), and high biodiversity of the associated community. There are differences in species composition controlled by biogeographic patterns and oceanography, and along the depth gradient that require further investigations.

Classification:
EUNIS (v1405):
Level 4. A sub-habitat of ‘Mediterranean shallow/infralittoral coarse sediment’ (A5.5).
 
Annex 1:
1110 Sandbanks slightly covered all the time
1170 Reefs
 
MAES:
Marine- Marine inlets and transitional waters
Marine- Coastal
 
MSFD:
Shallow sublittoral sediment (coarse, sand, mud, mixed)
 
EUSeaMap:
Shallow coarse or mixed sediments
 
IUCN:
9.5 Subtidal sandy-mud
 
Other relationships:
INFRALITTORAL Barcelona code:
III.3.1. (lower infralittoral) Habitat of coarse sands small pebbles stirred by waves (CSSW)
III.3.1.a. Association with rhodoliths on CSSW (Lithophyllum dentatum, Lithophyllum racemus, Lithophyllum incrustans)
III.3.2. Habitat of sands and gravels under influence of bottom currents (SGBC - SGCF) (present both in Infralittoral and Circalittoral)
III.3.2.a. Association of maërl on SGBC (Lithothamnion corallioides and Phymatolithon calcareum)
III.3.2.b. Association with rhodoliths on SGBC (Lithophyllum racemus and Lithothamnion spp.)
III.3.2.c. Facies with Ophelia neglecta
CIRCALITTORAL
IV.2.2.a. Maërl Association on coastal detritic  (Lithothamnion corallioides and Phymatolithon calcareum)
IV.2.2.b. Association with rhodoliths on coastal detritic  (Lithothamnion spp., Neogoniolithon mamillosum, Spongites fruticulosusâ€‹)
IV.2.2.1, IV.2.2.2., IV.2.2.4 (circalittoral)

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The Mediterranean rhodolith habitat appears to have a higher calcareous algae biodiversity than North East Atlantic beds and to be distributed to greater depths. Some rhodolith-forming coralline algae such as Lithophyllum racemus, Lithothamnion minervae and Lithothamnion valens are believed to be Mediterranean endemic species.

Map Description:
This map has been generated using data from Basso et al., in press; Coconet Project, 2015 and MEDISEH project, within the MAREA framework, and supplemented with expert opinion. EOO and AOO have been calculated on the available data presented in this map however these should be treated with caution as expert opinion is that this may not indicate the full distribution of the habitat

Trends in Quantity:
The first broad distribution map reported for Mediterranean rhodolith beds has been recently documented with a surface area of more than 1,654 km2. However this valuation is probably well under-estimated as it only reflects areas from small-scale studies, limited to the 0 to 200â€…m depth band. In Italy, the habitat cover is reported approximately 1,547km2 while in other countries such as Malta and Spanish Balearic Islands, the observed distribution is already higher than 555 km2.
The degree to which rhodolith beds are exploited for fishing is unknown in most areas, preventing estimations of the magnitude of losses of the habitat and its key species.

Trends in Quality:
To date, the primary focus of research on rhodoliths has been compositional, ecological and distribution studies. There is limited information regarding the trends on the quality of this habitat. In Spain, for example,studies comparing MPA of Tabarca with low trawling pressure with another site with a high frequency of trawling, revealed that the cover of rhodoliths, was four times greater at the MPA, with also a greater number and biomass of macrofaunal species. Studies on the effects of fish farming also showed how the waste load can modify the rhodolith beds in a physico-chemical (increasing sedimentation rates of particulate organic carbon, particulate organic nitrogen and total phosphorus) and biological way as well as lowering the number of trophic groups (mainly grazers) and the balance among groups in affected sites.
Rhodolith- associated assemblages have been shown to be significant less diverse and abundant in areas with higher fishing pressure than others. In Alicante (Spain), the cover of coralline algae was found around 50% of total algal cover in less impacted areas (Tabarca MPA) in comparison to 90% of the cover  due to non-calcareous algae, mainly species from the genus Peyssonnelia, in areas of higher impact.
Overall trends in quality are unknown.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
This habitat has a large natural range extending throughout the Mediterranean Sea, with important beds in Marseille and Corsica (France), Sardinia (Italy), and in the Aegean Sea.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The EOO exceeds 50,000km2 therefore this habitat does not show a small natural range although it is likely that a complex of different calcareous algal associations with a limited distribution are presently included in a single hab

Pressures and Threats:
The major anthropogenic impact on Mediterranean rhodolith beds is due to otter trawling which is the most important fishing activity that is illegally carried out in some inshore waters. Otter trawling can cause physical and biological degradation of benthic habitats. Other pressures such as land reclamation for coastal structures, effluent discharges (e.g. domestic and/or industrial wastes); offshore dumping (e.g. domestic and/or sewage sludge and industrial waste); extraction (direct exploitation of rhodoliths for use as a soil conditioner; extraction of sand for artificial beaches); aquaculture waste; mooring of boats, and alien species can produce diverse kind of impacts on the habitat.
Ocean warming and acidification can decrease net calcification, decrease growth and reproduction, as well as reduce abundance and diversity, leading to death and ecological shift to dominant non-calcifying algae.

Conservation and Management:
A special Action Plan for the protection of Mediterranean coralligenous and maerl assemblages has been recently adopted within the framework of the United Nations Environment Programme’s Mediterranean Action Plan (UNEP-MAP). Besides, the European Commission's ‘Habitats Directive’ mandates the conservation management of two of the main European maerl-forming species, Phymatolithon calcareum and Lithothamnion corallioides and under European law (No 1967/2006) and destructive fishing is prohibited over Mediterranean maerl beds. 
Marine reserves and MPAs have worked well in protecting local rhodolith beds from the effects of towed fishing gear as in the case of Tabarca Island. Rhodolith beds are considered as being vulnerable habitats by France and have been included within a proposed network of conservation areas termed ‘Natura 2000’ sites.
However, the lack of relevant geospatial data of the distribution of this habitat in the Mediterranean countries, significantly hinders the effective implementation of these policies. Among key conservation and management measures proposed are:
- Change the term "maerl" in the legal  EU and Barcelona policy documents  to "rhodoliths" as to conform the origin of the terms and their international scientific use, and to cover also the calcareous Peyssonnelia beds;  
- Development of a moratoria on the issue of further permits for the siting of aquaculture units above rhodolith grounds;
- Setting up monitoring programmes of the health of rhodolith beds; including the collection of quantitative data about community composition;
- Designation of ‘no-take’ reserves and MPAs where these habitats occur;
- Establishing measures to limit the impacts that might affect water quality above rhodolith beds;
- Other Mediterranean endemics should be considered for protection (i.e.: Lithophyllum racemus, Lithothamnion minervae, Lithothamnion valens)
- Given its importance and current threats, should be evaluated as priority habitats for the Annex I of Habitat Directive

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
1110: MMED XX
1170: MMED XX
Two rhodolith-composing Mediterranean species, Lithothamnion corallioides and Phymatolithon calcareum, are included in Annex V of the Habitats Direct

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Being among the slowest-growing organisms (up to a few mm per year), rhodolith algae are exceptionally vulnerable to any mechanical disturbance or those impacts that increase sedimentation and turbidity making the habitat less resilient to disturbance with a slow recovery capacity. Substantial deposits take centuries, or millennia, to accumulate. Moreover, the anthropogenic physical damage can change the species diversity and functional relationships.

Summary:
Rhodolith beds are formed by the accumulation of various species of unattached red calcareous algae (Rhodophyta). They are composed of living and dead thalli, and although they have a patchy distribution, they occur throughout the Mediterranean Sea where they are particularly abundant. Mediterranean rhodolith beds are known to be hot-spots of  biodiversity, hosting a high diverse invertebrate community. Moreover, they are amongst the Mediterranean communities with the highest amounts and production rates of carbonates, and they provide nursery grounds for commercial fish and shellfish species.
Commercial dredging, trawling fisheries, chemical pollution by organic matter and excess nutrients are the major threats identified for these habitats. Rhodolith-forming algae are likely to be also affected by the ongoing global warming and ocean acidification. The need to grant protection to the characteristic species of this Mediterranean assemblage should also be considered along with a moratoria on the issue of further permits for the siting of aquaculture units above rhodolith grounds; monitoring programmes: designation of ‘no-take’ reserves and MPAs where these habitats occur; and establishing measures to limit the impacts that might affect water quality above rhodolith beds.

References:
Agnesi, S., Annunziatellis, A., Casese, M. L., Di Nora, T., La Mesa, G., Mo, G., Pergent-Martini, C. and Tunesi, L. 2009. Analysis on the coralligenous assemblages in the Mediterranean Sea: a review of the current state of knowledge in support of future investigations. In: Pergnt-Martini C, Brichet M (eds) UNEP-MAPRAC/SPA 2009. Proceedings of the 1st Mediterranean symposium on the conservation of the coralligeous and other calcareous bio-concretions (Tabarka, 15–16 January 2009). RAC/SPA publication, Tunis.
AIS Environmental Ltd. & Malta Environment and Planning Authority. 2006. Marine Scientific Surveys around Filfla for its conservation. Acoustic and Video Report, September 2006. Structural Funds Programme Malta 2004-2006.
Barbera, C., Bordehore, C.,  Borg, J.A., Glémarec, M.,  Grall,J., Hall-Spencer, J. M., De la Huz, C.H., Lanfranco, E.,  Lastra, M., Moore, P.G., Mora, J., Pita, M.E., RamosEsplá, A.A.,  Rizzo, M., Sánchez-Mata, A.,Seva, A., Schembri P.J. and  Valle, C. 2003. Conservation and management of northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean maerl beds. Aquatic Conserv: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 13: S65–S76.
Barberá, J., Moranta, F., Ordines, M., Ramón, A., Mesa, M., Díaz-Valdés, A., Grau, M. and Massutí, E. 2012. Biodiversity and habitat mapping of Menorca Channel (western Mediterranean): implications for conservation.Biodiversity and Conservation; 21 (3): 701 DOI: 10.1007/s10531-011-0210-1
Basso, D., Babbini, L., Ramos-Esplá, A.A., Salomidi, M., in press. Chapter 11. Mediterranean rhodolith beds. In: Riosmena-Rodriguez, R., Nelson, W., Aguirre, J. (Eds) Rhodolith/maerl beds: a global perspective. Springer.
Basso, D. 2012. Carbonate production by calcareous red algae and global change. In Calcareous algae and global change: from identification to quantification, MNHN, Paris, Basso D, Granier B (eds). Geodiversitas 34: 13-33. DOI: 10.5252/g2012n1a2.
Basso, D., Rodondi, G. and Caragnano, A., 2014. Coralline species composition of Tyrrhenian maerl beds (Western mediterranean). 2nd Mediterranean ´Symposium on the conservation of coralligenous and other calcareous bio-concretions.Portoroz, Slovenia.197-199.
Basso, D., Babbini, L., Kaleb, S., Bracchi, V.A., Falace, A., 2015. Monitoring deep Mediterranean rhodolith beds. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. In press.
BIOMAERL Team, 2003. Conservation and management of northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean maerl beds. Aquatic Conserv: Mar Freshw Ecosyst 13: S65– S76. doi: 10.1002/aqc.569.
Birkett, D. A., Maggs, C., and Dring, M. J. 1998. ‘‘Maerl’’: an Overview of Dynamic and Sensitivity Characteristics for Conservation Management of Marine SACs. The Scottish Association for Marine Science, UK Marine Special Areas of Conservation Project, 116 pp.
Bordehore, C., Borg, J. A., Lanfranco, E., Ramos-Espla, A. A, Rizzo, M. and Schembri, P. 2000. Trawling as a major threat to Mediterranean maerl beds, presented at the First Mediterranean Symposium on Marine Vegetation, Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas [UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan], Ajaccio, Corsica, France 2–3 October 2000.
Bordehore, C., Ramos-Espla, A. and Riosmena-Rodriguez, R. 2003. Comparative study of two maerl beds with different otter trawling history, southeast Iberian Peninsula. Aquatic Conserv: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 13: S43–S54.
Borg, J. A., Lanfranco, E., Mifsud, J. R., Rizzo, M. and Schembri, P. J. 1998. Does fishing have an impact on Maltese maerl grounds? ICES Conference on the Ecosystem Effects of Fishing, Hiraklion, Crete.
Borg, J. A., Dimech, M., Magro, M. & Schembri, P. J. 2005. Report on a survey of an offshore area off Zonqor Point (south-eastern coast of Malta), made in April 2005 as part of baseline ecological surveys in connection with the establishment of an ‘aquaculture zone’. Phase 3 - Grab sampling to assess the diversity of macrobenthos, and physico-chemical characteristics of the sediments (granulometry, and organic carbon and organic nitrogen content). Msida, Malta: Malta University Services Ltd; 24pp.
Canals, M. and Ballesteros, E. 1997. Production of carbonate sediments by phytobenthic communitities in the Mallorca-Minorca shelf, north western Mediterranean Sea.
Dimech, M., Borg, J. A. & Schembri, P. J. 2004. Report on a video survey of an offshore area off Zonqor Point (south-eastern coast of Malta), made in April 2004 as part of baseline ecological surveys in connection with the establishment of an ‘aquaculture zone’. Report I - Preliminary video characterization. [Survey commissioned by the Malta Environment and Planning Authority]. Msida, Malta: Malta University Services Ltd; 14pp. + Figs 1-4 + video [2 DVDs].
Foster, M. S., Amado-Filho, G. M., Kamenos, N. A., Riosmena-Rodriguez, R., Steller, D. L. 2013. Rhodoliths and rhodolith beds. In Research and Discoveries: The Revolution of Science Through SCUBA. Lang MA, Marinelli RL, Roberts SJ, Taylor PR. (eds). Smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences 39: 143-155
Freiwald, A., Henrich, R., Schafer, P., and Willkomm, H. 1991. The significance of high-boreal to subarctic maerl deposits in northern Norway to reconstruct Holocene climatic changes and sea level oscillations. Facies 25: 315–340.
McCoy, S. J., Ragazzola, F. 2014. Skeletal trade-offs in coralline algae in response to ocean acidification. Nature Climate Change 4 (8): 719-723, doi:10.1038/nclimate2273
Martin, S., Gattuso, J. P. 2009. Response of Mediterranean coralline algae to ocean acidification and elevated temperature. Global Change Biology 15: 2089-2100.
Martin, C. S., Giannoulaki, M., De Leo, F., Scardi, M. et al. 2014. Corraligenous and maerl habitats: predictive modelling to identify their spatial distributions across the Mediterranean Sea. Sci Rep 4: 50-73.
Massuti, E., Reñones, O., Carbonell, A. and Oliver, P. 1996. Demersal fish communities exploited on the continental shelf and slope off Majorca (Balearic Islands, NW Mediterranean. Vie et Milieu 46 (1): 45-55.
Nelson, W. 2009. Calcified macroalgae – critical to coastal ecosystems and vulnerable to change: a review. Marine and Freshwater Research 60: 787-801.
Oliver, P. 1983. Les resources halieautiques de la Mediterranee, Premiere Partie: Mediterranee Occidentale.Studies and Reviews of the General Fisheries Council of the Mediterranean 59: 135.
Pirotta & Schembri, P. 2000. Report on surveys of the bathymetry, submarine geophysical features, seascapes and benthic biotic assemblages of the area from Rdum Majjiesa to Raheb Cave on the northwestern coast of the island of Malta, designated as a candidate Marine Conservation Area. Unpublished report prepared as part of Project Activity 3.6: Marine Conservation Areas, Coastal Area Management Programme for Malta (CAMP Malta) [United Nations Environment Programme, Mediterranean Action Plan and Government of Malta]; 64pp. + Plates 1-114 + Figs 1-11.
Ramos, A. A. (ed.) 1985. La reserva marina de la Isla Plana o Nueva Tabarca (Alicante). Publicaciones de Universidad de Alicante, Alicante. 194 pp.
Relini, G. and Giaccone, G. (eds) 2009. Gli habitat prioritari del protocollo SPA/BIO (Convenzione di Barcellona) presenti in Italia. Schede descrittive per l’identificazione. Biol. Mar. Mediterr.,16 (Suppl. 1): 1-372.
Sanchez-Lizaso, J.L., Guille, J.E. and Ramos-Espla, A.A. 1990. The regression of Posidonia oceanica meadows in El Campello. Rapports C.I.E.S.M. 32(1) :7.
Sanz-Lázaro,C., Belando, M., Marín-Guirado, L., Navarrete-Mier, F., and Marín, A. 2011. Relationship between sedimentation rates and benthic impact on Maërl beds derived from fish farming in the Mediterranean. Marine Environmental Research 71, 22e30.
Sciberras, M., Rizzo, M., Mifsud, J. R., Camilleri, K., Borg, J. A., Lanfranco, E. and Schembri, P. J. 2009. Habitat structure and biological characteristics of a maerl bed off the northeastern coast of the Maltese Islands (central Mediterranean). Mar Biodiv 39:251–264.

Criterion A Text:
Although there are reports and studies at some sites, there is limited information to get estimations of losses of this habitat for the majority of its distribution. Therefore the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
Both the EOO and the AOO exceed the thresholds for a threatened category, however there is no information on whether there is a continuing decline in the spatial extent or the biotic and abiotic quality, on whether a threatening process will likely cause continuing declines. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The assessment of reduction in abiotic and/or biotic quality is not possible due to the lack of studies and data on past state conditions of rhodolith habitats for most Mediterranean areas. However, ocean acidification is likely to have strong negative impacts on the calcareous algae, the habitat engineers. Moreover, seawater warming could also have particularly severe effects on some calcareous algal species due to their fragmented ranges and poor dispersal but only limited knowledge of temperature tolerances and optima are available for some species. These effects together with the ongoing pressures from the use of demersal fishing gear and pollution will also produce a moderate to even substantial impact on Mediterranean rhodolith beds unknown for the region.
Since there are no studies available on the past and current conditions of this habitat type, it is not possible to calculate the reductions in abiotic and/or biotic quality, although slight changes have happened and are likely occur in the abiotic conditions of this habitat in the future. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion C/D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative analysis available to estimate the probability of collapse of this habitat type. Therefore, it is assessed as Data Deficient under criterion E.

Synthesis:
There are no published data on trends of this habitat and very little available information about its extent of occurrence or its area of occupancy. There have been no quantitative analyses examining the probability of extinction of Mediterranean rhodolith beds. As a result, there is insufficient data to properly assess the habitat against any of the red list criteria, and it is listed as Data Deficient for both EU 28 and EU +28.

Contributors:
Tunesi L., Schembri P., Knittweis-Mifsud L.


Habitat Type Name:
E1.7 Lowland to submontane, dry to mesic Nardus grassland

Habitat Description:
The grasslands characterized by Nardus stricta from the lowland areas up to the submontane belt of the mountains are separated from the Nardus communities in higher mountains (E4.3b), although Natura 2000 classifies them together in one type (H6230). This in spite of the naming of the habitat type in the EU Interpretation Manual: ‘Species-rich Nardus grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)’. The habitat includes low-growing grasslands on nutrient-poor, acidic and moist to moderately dry soils. In most cases, the vegetation is grazed by sheep and/or cattle; occasionally, burning takes place. The species composition of the vegetation is closely related to the intensity and type of grazing.  Generally, Nardus stricta is the dominant species, providing the vegetation with a densely tufted structure. Even from a distance, the pale wiry foliage of the species helps marking out the stands; later in the season the leaves turn to a bleached straw colour. Occasionally, other oligotrophic grasses (such as Festuca filiformis, Agrostis capillaris and Deschampsia flexuosa) may dominate, as well as – less frequent – rushes like Juncus squarrosus, the latter on relatively wet soils and in regions with a high precipitation. The habitat is widespread in the temperate zone of Europe, from Western to Central Europe. In Northern Europe, it reaches to Southern Norway, Southern Sweden and Latvia, in Southern Europe to Spain and Italy. The Nardus swards prefer a rainy and cool climate; in Great Britain, for instance, the habitat is rather rare in the warmer and drier lowlands, but very common and widespread in the cool and wet mountains in the north.
In the widespread ‘sand landscape’ of the lowland regions in North-western Europe (Belgium, Netherlands, Northern Germany and Southern Denmark), the Nardus grasslands are part of the traditional heathland systems, nowadays limited to nature reserves. Here, the communities are often restricted to small localities and highly endangered. Where the Nardus grasslands in Europe occupy larger areas, they tend to disappear due to abandoning at the one hand or nutrient enrichment on the other hand. In both cases, the sites are taken over by more competitive species.
Consequently to the abandonment of the traditional grazing activities, these grasslands are invaded by shrubs, such as Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium sp. pl., Juniperus communis, or trees, e.g. Betula pendula, Pinus sylvestris, as well as Picea and Larix and, sometimes, Pinus cembra or Populus tremula.
Indicators of good quality:
·     Low and rather dense vegetation structure;
·     Absence of shrubs and trees.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Agrostis capillaris, Ajuga tenorei, Antennaria dioica, Arnica montana, Bellardiochloa variegata, Brachypodium genuense, Campanula barbata, Carex ericetorum, Crepis conyzifolia, Crocus neapolitanus, Deschampsia flexuosa, Dianthus deltoides, Festuca circumediterranea, Festuca filiformis, Festuca ovina (agg.), Festuca nigrescens, Festuca paniculata, Galium saxatile, Gentiana pneumonanthe, Gentiana kochiana, Geum montanum, Gnaphalium sylvaticum, Homogyne alpina, Hypericum maculatum, Juncus squarrosus, Lathyrus linifolius (= L. montanus), Leontodon helveticus, Meum athamanticum, Nardus stricta, Nigritella rhellicani, Orchis spitzelii, Pedicularis sylvatica, Pilosella aurantiaca, Pilosella lactucella, Platanthera bifolia, Polygala serpyllifolia, Polygala vulgaris, Potentilla aurea, Potentilla erecta, Potentilla rigoana, Ranunculus pollinensis, Senecio scopolii, Tulipa sylvestris subsp. australis, Veronica officinalis, Viola calcarata subsp. cavillieri , Viola canina.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.7 Closed non-Mediterranean dry acid and neutral grassland
EuroVegChecklist alliances:
Violion caninae Schwickerath 1944
Nardo-Agrostion tenuis Sillinger 1933
Achilleo-Arnicion Horvat et Pawlowski in Horvat 1960
Campanulo herminii-Nardion Rivas-Mart. 1964
Nardo-Juncion squarrosi (Oberd. 1957) Passarge 1964
Ranunculo pollinensis-Nardion strictae Bonin 1972
Potentillo-Polygonion vivipari Nordhagen ex Dierssen 1992 (lower parts)
Annex 1:
6230* Species-rich Nardus grasslands, on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submountain areas in Continental Europe)
Emerald:
E1.71 Nardus stricta swards
E1.722 Boreo-arctic Agrostis-Festuca grasslands
MAES-2:
Terrestrial Grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Although generally affected by reduction processes due to various pressures, this type of habitat has a scattered distribution involving several biogeographical regions: Boreal, Continental, Atlantic, Alpine and, for a limited range, Mediterranean.

Map Description:
The map currently includes: Belgium, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Spain (probably largely underestimated), United Kingdom, Sweden and Denmark (the last 2 with no data). Austria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Switzerland and Norway should be added. EOO and AOO should be recalculated accordingly.

Trends in Quantity:
In spite of very large values of EOO and AOO, this habitat type does not tend to cover very large surfaces locally, depending on the occurrence of very peculiar soil and substrata conditions. The quantitative trend from the last 50 years is strongly decreasing (between 32 and 38% on average, both in EU28 and EU28+). Hungary, Slovakia, Germany, Czech Republic, Latvia reported extremely high rates of decrease (between 80 and 90%). In Romania this habitat seems to be rather stable, while in Bulgaria it shows even a slight increase (+10%). The United Kingdom, accounting for 3/4 of the total known surface, could not provide precise figures about quantitative decline; the experts indicated that in some places there was a loss of these grasslands due to forestry, agricultural improvement/reclamation, grazing reduction and invasion by heath; while in other places acid grassland has replaced previous heath (by grazing and burning) and woodland (after felling). The balance between these losses and gains is not known.

Trends in Quality:
The qualitative trend for this habitat type is remarkably declining, with a degree of severity that ranges around 48% on average and affects an extent of around 36% of the total surface, both in EU28 and in EU28+. It should be noted that no precise figures from the United Kingdom, accounting for 3/4 of the total known surface, are available; in this country, the experts reported that most (91%) of monitored Annex 1 6230 habitat within SSSI/SAC sites is in unfavourable condition.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
About 95% of the currently known distribution of this habitat type lies inside the EU28 territory. Only a very small amount is reported from Bosnia-Herzegovina and Switzerland. The presence in Norway has not been confirmed but it is highly probable.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat type, although suffering for remarkable quantitative reduction, has a very large natural range.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat type has a very large natural range.

Pressures and Threats:
Among the most threatening pressures, the biocenotic evolution and the consequent succession of shrub and forest vegetation should be mentioned first. These grasslands are linked to a specific rural management with cattle, sheep or horses grazing. During the last decades, due to the abandonment of traditional land use and extensive pastoral systems, the area covered by this habitat type has been remarkably reduced and is expected to decline further in future, and its species richness as well. Overgrowing by shrubs, e.g. Juniperus communis or Calluna vulgaris, and development of forests are very frequent events all over the habitat range, with the vanishing of several characteristic and formerly widespread species. Other pressures are represented by changes in the land use (from transformation to arable land or forest planting on open ground, to development of urbanised areas and human habitation) and/or an intensification of its use (e.g. fertilisation, nitrogen input). Also overgrazing and intensive grazing can be a serious threat, especially in the uplands. Invasive non-native species can locally affect the floristic composition. Also climate change can play a role, with special reference to changes in the pluviometric regime.

Conservation and Management:
The maintainance and promotion of traditional pastoral systems, with low intensity grazing, is an essential tool for the conservation of this habitat type and the related landscapes. At the same time, overgrazing should be carefully avoided, since it can provoke breaking of the sward continuity, soil transformation with enrichment in nitrogen and nutrients, ingression of ruderal species. The successional processes already ongoing should be halted by direct intervention, sometimes including mechanical eradication of shrub and tree species. Establishing protected areas and introducing (or reaffirming) the legal protection of habitats and species is necessary, because many times the traditional activities are not profitable in these areas and an economic support for their re-establishment is often needed.

Conservation Status:
6230*: ALP U2, ATL U2, BOR U2, CON U2, MED XX

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
This habitat is represented by semi-natural plant communities, depending on traditional, extensive land-use practices for their maintainance. The time needed for their recovery depends on the type of damage and the level of decline. In case of massive recolonization by the shrub-dominated vegetation, a drastic removal of the wood vegetation is needed, followed by the re-introduction of not-intensive grazing. This process might give good results only on the medium-long term. In case of serious soil damage (with compaction, enrichment in nitrogen and nutrients, or breaking of the sward continuity) the needed time for restoration can be far longer. In any case, for the habitat recovery a direct human intervention is needed, otherwise the natural successional processes would fastly bring to the development of woody vegetation.

Summary:
This kind of grassland, dominated by the tightly tussocky Nardus stricta is characteristic of nutrient-poor, acidic soils, sometimes seasonally wet, on siliceous substrates through the entire lowlands and sub-montane zone of temperate Europe, though optimally developed in the cooler and rainier climate of the Atlantic zone.  Though Nardus is itself unrewarding for stock, the rather short swards are typically grazed by sheep and/or cattle and are part of wider pastoral landscapes of heathlands in the lowlands, and, at higher altitudes, other sub-montane habitats. Other grasses may share dominance but the associated flora is generally rather species-poor. Abandonment of grazing can permit invasion by sub-shrubs and eventually trees and smaller lowland fragments are more susceptible to enrichment through local agricultural improvement or atmospheric inputs.  Afforestation is also sometimes a threat, also in the lowlands, improvement for arable cultivation, land-take for urbanisation and the invasion of non-native species.

References:
Biondi, E., Ballelli, S., Allegrezza, M, Taffetani, F., Frattaroli, A. R., Guitian, J., and Zuccarello, V., 1999. La vegetazione di Campo Imperatore (Gran Sasso d’Italia). Braun-Blanquetia 16: 53-115.
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Allegrezza, M., Anzellotti, I., Azzella, M.M., Carli, E., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Facioni, L., Galdenzi, D., Gasparri, R., Lasen, C., Pesaresi, S., Poldini, L., Sburlino, G., Taffetani, F., Vagge, I., Zitti, S. and Zivkovic, L. 2014. Plant communities of Italy: The Vegetation Prodrome. Plant Biosystems 148(4): 728-814. doi: 10.1080/11263504.2014.948527
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R. and Zivkovic, L. 2009. Manuale Italiano di interpretazione degli habitat della Direttiva 92/43/CEE. Società Botanica Italiana. Ministero dell’Ambiente e della tutela del territorio e del mare, D.P.N. http://vnr.unipg.it/habitat/
Biondi, E., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R., Zivkovic, L. and Blasi, C. 2012. Diagnosis and syntaxonomic interpretation of Annex I Habitats (Dir. 92/43/ EEC) in Italy at the alliance level. Plant Sociology, 49(1): 5-37.
Blasi, C. (Ed.), 2010. La Vegetazione d’Italia. Palombi & Partner S.r.l. Roma. ISBN: 978-88-6060-290-9
Ciaschetti, G., Pirone, G., Frattaroli, A.R., and Corbetta, F. 2006. La vegetazione del Piano di Pezza (Parco Naturale Regionale "Sirente-Velino", Italia Centrale). Fitosociologia 43(1): 67-84.
Cortini Pedrotti, C., Orsomando, E., Pedrotti, F. and Sanesi, G. 1973. La vegetazione e i suoli del Pian Grande di Castelluccio di Norcia (Appennino centrale). Atti Ist. Bot. Lab. Crittog. Pavia 9: 155-249.
Di Pietro, R., De Santis, A., Fortini, P., and Blasi, C. 2005. Geobotanical investigation on acidophilous grasslands in the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park. Lazaroa 26: 115-137.
Genovesi, P., Angelini, P., Bianchi, E., Dupré, E., Ercole, S., Giacanelli, V., Ronchi, F. and Stoch, F. 2014. Specie e habitat di interesse comunitario in Italia: distribuzione, stato di conservazione e trend. MATTM, ISPRA. 194 pp.
ISPRA, 2009-2014. Progetto Carta della Natura alla scala 1:50.000. http://www.isprambiente.gov.it/it/servizi-per-lambiente/sistema-carta-della-natura/carta-della-naturaalla-scala-1-50.000
Poldini, L., and Oriolo, G. 1997. La vegetazione dei pascoli a Nardus stricta e delle praterie subalpine acidofile in Friuli (NE- Italia). Fitosociologia 34: 127-158.
Pott, R., and Hüppe, J. 1991. Die Hudelandschaften Nordwestdeutschlands. Abhund­lungen aus dem Landesmuseum für Naturkunde zu Münster in Westfalen 53: 1-313.
Puppi Branzi, G., Zanotti, A.L., and Speranza, M. 1994. Phenological studies on Vaccinium and Nardus communities. Fitosociologia, 26: 63-79.
Stieperaere, H. 1990. De heischrale graslanden (Nardetea) van Atlantisch Europa. Dissertatie Universiteit van Gent, 303 pp.
Viciani, D. and Gabellini, A.  2000. Contributo alla conoscenza della vegetazione del Pratomagno (Toscana orientale): le praterie di crinale ed il complesso forestale regionale del versante casentinese. Webbia 55(2): 297-316.

Criterion A Text:
Both in EU28 and EU28+, a range of average decline between 32 and 38% is recorded. The uncertainty derives from different scenarios from Austria, Hungary and Italy where a range of values about the past area and/or the rate of quantitative change has been provided. The quantitative decrease is highest in Hungary, Slovakia, Germany, Czech Republic, Latvia (between 80 and 90%). In Romania there is a stable trend, in Bulgaria a slight increase (+10%) has been reported by the territorial experts. No precise figures about quantitative decline are available for United Kingdom, accounting for 3/4 of the total known surface; the balance between losses and gains is not known. The assessment based on Criterion A results in the category Vulnerable.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO and AOO are well above the thresholds for criterion B, although subcriteria a and b are satisfied, with reference to the abandonment of the traditional grazing activities, that caused a remarkable decline in the last 50 years and represents an ongoing threatening process likely to cause continuing decline within the next 20 years. The assessment based on Criterion B results in the category Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall quality of this habitat type is remarkably declining, with a degree of severity of 48% on average affecting an extent of 36% of the total surface, both in EU28 and in EU28+. It should be noted that no precise figures from the United Kingdom, accounting for 3/4 of the total known surface, are available; however the local experts reported that most (91%) of monitored Annex 1 6230 habitat (representing a minimum fraction of the total surface) within SSSI/SAC sites is in unfavourable condition. Additionally, further 7 countries (Estonia, Ireland, Finland, Spain, Romania, Portugal, Switzerland) could not provide precise figures about the severity of the qualitative decline. Further detailed information is needed to proceed with a more complete qualitative assessment. On the ground of the available data, according to the Criterion C/D1, this habitat type doesn't meet the thresholds and can be assessed as Least Concern. However, it should be stressed that both extent and severity of decline show a clearly dramatic ongoing process of qualitative degeneration that, in spite of the fixed thresholds, calls for urgent conservation actions.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assigned to the category Vulnerable (VU), both in EU28 and EU28+, based on the application of Criterion A1, since it was affected by a remarkable quantitative decline, with a loss of around 38% of its former area during the last 50 years. Quantitative trends from the United Kingdom, accounting for 3/4 of the total known surface, were not available and therefore a large rate of the total area remains not evaluated. Due to a wide and scattered distribution, the application of Criterion B results in the category Least Concern (LC) both in EU28 and EU28+. Also evaluating the decline in quality (Criterion C/D1) leads to the conclusion Least Concern (LC). Nevertheless, a serious qualitative decline is evident, showing a degree of severity around 48% affecting 36% of the total habitat surface. These values are close to the threshold of Near Threatened,a nd it should be stressed that a dramatic process of qualitative degeneration clearly affected these grasslands during the last 50 years and will probably continue, a situation that calls for urgent conservation actions.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No sub-habitats have been distinguished, but regional types with different species composition may be relevant and more threatened.

Assessors:
D. Gigante.
Other Habitat Working Group members: I. Biurrun, J. Capelo, J. Dengler, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J.H.J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev.

Contributors:
Type description: J. Schaminée
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, A.B.G. Averis, A.M. Averis, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, L. Casella, J.M. Couvreur, R. Delarze, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, D. Gigante, M. Janišová, Z. KÄ…cki, G. Király, M. KoÄí, T. Kontula, J. Loidi, J.R. Martin, A. Mikolajczak, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, D. Paelinckx, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, E. Roosaluste, V. Rusakova, S. Rusina, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani, E. Weeda


Habitat Description:
Tundra is a treeless habitat, dominated by mosses, lichens, herbs and low shrubs, characteristic for arctic and subarctic regions, where the subsoil is permanently frozen (permafrost). The term is also used for physiognomic similar habitats in alpine areas above the timberline, but here it only refers to arctic and subarctic habitats.
Shrub tundra is a tundra type of the southern arctic belt characterized by abundance of medium small and small shrubs, especially Ericaceous species. This in contrast to the colder tundra of the middle and northern arctic belts, where mosses and lichens dominate (type F1.2). Permafrost is sporadic within the southern arctic, with mean temperatures of about 0 °C, and average July temperatures below 10 °C . Shrub tundra is a circumpolar arctic type of the tundra’s of Russia, Canada, Alaska and Greenland. In Europe the arctic zone (above the climatic limit of woodland) is mainly found in Russia, but small areas occur on the northern edges of Iceland and Norway, as well as on the islands Jan Mayen, Bjørnøya and the Svalbard archipelago.
In Finnmark, the northern region of Norway, the arctic belt is restricted to the lower altitudes at sea level. Dominant dwarf shrubs here are Empetrum hermaphroditum, accompanied by Salix herbacea , Vaccinium myrtilus, Vaccinium uliginosum, Juncus trifidus, Festuca vivipara and high abundance of mosses (Racomitrium lanuginosum, Dicranum fuscescens) and lichens (Cetraria cucculata, C. ericetorum). The habitat forms a gradual transition towards heathlands of the lower alpine zone, with a similar species composition (habitat F 2.2a ‘Alpine and subalpine ericoid shrub’). Differences between tundra and alpine heathland are the shorter growth period and lower soil temperatures in the arctic. Due to grazing (reindeer, rodents) the heathland occurs in mosaic with grasslands. Overgrazing leads to disappearance of lichen cover and specific species, like Cladina stellaris.
On Island, the same shrubs are characteristic of the tundra belt and, like in Norway, the transition towards boreal subalpine heathlands (habitat type F2.2a) is gradual. On young lava fields of Island vascular plants occur only scattered, and such pioneer stages of the habitat, dominated by the moss Racomitrium langinosum, sometimes accompanied by R. ericoides, are considered part of the shrub tundra.
Also on Jan Mayen, situated in the middle arctic belt, Empetrum hermaphroditum is the dominant species, growing together with the mentioned Racomitrium species and lichens. Here the type is found in a low, oceanic part of the island and – in contrast to other areas – there is no grazing.
On Svalbard shrub tundra is restricted to the warmest part of the island Spitsbergen, the “Innerfjord zone”. This comprises the coastal regions of the central fjords of Spitsbergen, where no sea fog and relatively few clouds result in a slightly warmer climate. Here about 75% of all vascular plants of Svalbard is found. Locally, shrub dominates the tundra. Here, the habitat type is considered a relict vegetation of post-glacial warmer periods. Empetrum nigrum and Vaccinium uliginosum are the most important species, and here and there Betula nana and Rubus chamaemorus are found. In the same part of Svalbard low shrubland dominated by Cassiope tetragona forms a transition to Moss and Lichen Tundra (F1.2).
Indicators of quality:
In good conditions the habitat shows the following characteristics:
Dominance of dwarf shrubs,
No indication of overgrazing,
No erosion patterns,
No presence of non-native species (like Lupinus nootkatensis),
High cover and high diversity of lichens and mosses.

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Betula nana, Cassiope tetragona, Empetrum hermaphroditum, Rubus chamaemorus, Salix ssp., Tofieldia pusilla, Vaccinium uliginosum
Mosses: Racomitrium ericoides, Racomitrium lanuginosum
Lichens: Cladina mitis, Cladina rangiferina, Cladina stellaris, Flavocetraria nivalis

Classification:
Annex 1:
--
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Loiseleurio-Arctostaphylion Kalliola 1939
Phyllodoco-Vaccinion myrtilli Nordhagen 1943
Emerald:
--
MAES:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.1 Subarctic shrubland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is an outstanding example for the Arctic Biogeographic region.

Map Description:
The map is complete, but likely gives an overestimate of the distribution on Svalbard and Iceland, as it is based on the potential vegetation which is more or less similar to the actual vegetation for this habitat. Data source: BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
The area and quality of the habitat is problably stable over time as climate change mainly will make a shift in the distribution range. On Iceland it could be increasing in the future due to a reduction of grazing, but no good data exist.

Trends in Quality:
There is no quantitative information, but the quality of the habitat is assessed to be stable over time in Svalbard and northern Norway. On Iceland the decreased grazing may increase the quality.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
0%. All area of the habitat is outside the EU28.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat occurs in large patches and is not declining.

Pressures and Threats:
The habitat is under little threat today as grazing in Island is declining. Climate change will mostly affect a change in altitude and latitude of the habitat. A possible pressure in Svalbard is the reindeer grazing, but that pressure have to be considered as a natural, dynamic process.

Conservation and Management:
The only management needed is to have a representative part of the habitat legally protected. This is already done.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The processes in the Arctic are extremely slow, so the recovery of the habitat will take a long time.

Summary:
Shrub tundra is treeless vegetation of the southern arctic belt with sporadic permafrost, represented in the EU28+ only on Iceland and in mainland Norway and Svalbard. It is characterized by abundant sub-shrubs and often an extensive moss and lichen carpet, though grazing by reindeer and rodents often reduces lichen cover and results in tundra/grassland mosaics. Where grazing is declining or part of a dynamic process of cyclic change, it is not a threat but climate change might be expected to shift the altitudinal and latitudinal range of the habitat.  Being essentially a natural habitat, the only conservation requirement is landscape protection.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. (2004) Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn.
Johanson, B., Tømmervik, H., Karlsen, S. R. and Elvebakk, R. 2010. Vegetation mapping of Svalbard, Arctic Norway, utilizing Landsat TM/ETM+ data. NORUT – NINA – UiTø.
Magnússon, S. H., Magnússon, B., Ólafsson, E., Guðjónsson, G., Guðmundsson, G. A., Kristinsson, H., Egilsson, K., Skarphéðinsson, K H., Heiðmarsson, S. & Ottósson. J. G. 2009. Vistgerðir á miðhálendi Íslands Flokkun, lýsing og verndargildi. Nina report NÍ-09008.
Moen, A. (1999). National Atlas of Norway: Vegetation. Norwegian Mapping Authority, Hønefoss, 200 pp.
Thannheiser, D. (1996). Spitzbergen. Resourcen und Erschliessung einer hocharktischen Inselgruppe. Geographische Rundschau 48(5): 268-274.

Criterion A Text:
No decline in area has been observerved, and the resulting category therefore is Least Concern.

Criterion B Text:
No decline or threat is known, and AOO,EOO and number of locations are larger than the thresholds, leading to the category Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
No negative change in quality is known. The conclusion is Least Concern.

Criterion E Text:
No quantitative analysis that estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type has been carried out for this habitat.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assessed as Least Concern (LC) as no decline or negative change in area or quality is known since the last 50 years. In fact on Iceland a positive trend in area and quality is observed due to a reduction of grazing intensity.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The species composition of the habitat varies between Iceland, Svalbard and northern mainland Norway, but there is no need to distinguish different subtypes for the Red List assessment.

Contributors:
Working Group Heathland & Scrub: M. Aronsson, C. Bita-Nicolae, F. Bioret, A. ÄŒarni, J. Capelo, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen & J. Loidi.


Habitat Description:
This habitat comprises micro-forest vegetation with a low canopy dominated by lauriphyllous evergreen shrubs or small trees growing in warm-temperate oceanic to hyper-oceanic environments along the Atlantic coasts of northern Iberian Peninsula, central and southern Italy, Sardinia and Sicily. Nowadays, they present small remnants in the most humid and oceanic areas of the Atlantic areas of the continent or isolated enclaves surviving where sheltered situations like ravines provide local protection against summer heat and dessication. Typically species-poor, the habitat is usually dominated by shrubs of the humid Mediterranean zone, such as Arbutus unedo and Laurus nobilis which have a broad Mediterranean and southern Atlantic distribution and has an associated liane and field flora with general affiliations to the evergreen oak forests of the Quercetea ilicis.
Indicators of good quality:
When the stands are in optimal conditions they show the appearance of a closed deep shady bush or small forest.
Canopy is continuous and evergreen
Soil is covered by a thick layer of decomposing litter.
Ferns are common in the understory, sometimes as epiphytes, and bryophytes cover the stones and the trunks.
No signs of disturbance (logging, grazing, etc.) should be visible
Dead wood can be considered as a good indicator of maturity

Characteristic species:
Arbutus unedo, Laurus nobilis, Ilex aquifolium, Phyllirea latifolia, Prunus lusitanica, Rhamnus alaternus, Rosa sempervirens, Rubia peregrina, Smilax aspera, Tamus communis, Viburnum tinus.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G2.2 Eurasian continental sclerophyllous woodland
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Arbuto unedonis-Laurion nobilis Rivas-Martínez, Fernández-González et Loidi 1999
Clematido cirrhosae-Quercenion ilicis Bacch., Bagella, Biondi, Farris, Filigheddu & Mossa 2004
Fraxino orni-Quercion ilicis Biondi, Casavecchia & Gigante 2003
Annex 1:
5230 *Arborescent matorral with Laurus nobilis
Emerald:
F5.18 Laurus nobilis matorral
G2 Broadleaved evergreen woodland
MAES-2:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.6. Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland Or 1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
9.5 Other sclerophyllous forest

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat occurs in the warmer part of the Atlantic region and very local in the Mediterranean region.

Map Description:
The map has data gaps in Spain and Portugal and therefore potential distribution is partly provided. There is some doubt whether the occurrences in the centre of the Iberian peninsula are correct. Data sources: NAT, EVA.

Trends in Quantity:
The overall increase of quantity is of 30%, for 3 countries (Spain, France and Italy) over the last 50 years. This tendency has been extrapolated to all EU28 (and most probably also for EU28+). The total surface has passed from of 139 km2 to 180 in this 50 year period. The biggest increase (+32%) has occurred in Portugal, that hosts 72% of the surface of the habitat. For this reason, even if in Italy the trend is to decrease of 10% in the last 50 years, the overall surface of the habitat remains increasing for EU 28. The current and future trend is supposed to be stable. Historical trends (from 1750) remain unknown.

Trends in Quality:
Information on the trends in quality is very limited. Italy estimate that 10% of their surface respectively have suffered slight (around 30% severity) degradation over recent 50 year period. Considering that the surface occupied by Italy represents only 3% of area, this criteria is considered Data Deficient

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
90%, if we consider small occurrences in Switzerland and Balkan countries.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat may often occur in small stands, but not due to restricted underlying factors.

Pressures and Threats:
Most of localities of the habitat occur in remote areas, and for this reason the pressures are limited. The territorial experts have identified the main threat to the habitat to be forest management and substitution by forest plantations. To certain extend it has been highlighted the invasion by alien species, and changes in abiotic conditions, either induced by human (changes in hydraulic conditions) or indirectly (climate change).

Conservation and Management:
Currently as locations of this habitat are usually remote, the threats are low. Proposed conservation measures are related to identified pressures: Forestry, change in the hydraulic conditions

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
5230: MED U1 (not a very good relationship as the Annex 1-habitat is a scrub-type)

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Unlike other laurophilus woodland that show very limited recovery capacity (for example the canary island ones), this habitat has shown very elastic behaviour, increasing naturally almost by 1/3 in last 50 years, according to territorial experts.

Summary:
This habitat comprises micro-forest vegetation with a low canopy dominated by lauriphyllous evergreen shrubs or small trees growing in warm and humid oceanic to hyper-oceanic environments along the Atlantic coasts of northern Iberia, central and southern Italy, Sardinia and Sicily. Nowadays, only small remnants survive where sheltered situations like ravines provide local protection against summer heat and dessication. The species-poor vegetation is usually dominated by shrubs with lianes and herbs characteristic of the humid Mediterranean zone. Isolation offers some protection but the habitat can be threatened by inappropriate forest management and substitution by forest plantations, non-native species, alterations to hydrology and climate change. As far as possible, these need to be controlled.

References:
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. 2004. Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe.  Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.              
Council of Europe. 2010. Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats.  Strasbourg:  Council of Europe.   
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. 2004. EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised.  Report to   the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.
European Commission DG Environment. 2007. Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency. 2006. European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No   9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.  
Rivas-Martínez, S. and coauthors 2011. Mapa de series, geoseries y geopermaseries de vegetación de España [Memoria del mapa de vegetación potencial de España]. Parte II. Itinera Geobotanica 18 (1 and 2): 5-800.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell,  J.S. 2013. Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005.  Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.

Criterion A Text:
According to territorial experts from Spain, Portugal and Italy there has been 30% increase on habitat surface in the last 50 years (see territorial datasheet). This is mainly due to Portugal, which has reported an increase of 26% since 1974 (estimated by linear regression to be of 32% in last 50 year period). The trend in EU 28+ is unknown but since the occurrences outside EU28 are very small, they are not likely to affect the trend.

Criterion B Text:
EOO and AOO, calculated from the distribution map, are much larger than the thresholds under this criterion.

Criterion C/D Text:
The only country reporting data on degradation over the last 50 years is Italy. Considering that the surface occupied by Italy represents only 3% of area, this criteria is assessed as Data Deficient.

Synthesis:
The habitat has been assessed as Least Concern. The surface of the area is estimated to have increased by 22% during the last 50 years according to data from Portugal, Spain and Italy. If new data could justify trend in quality (currently missing), this could substantially change the assessments results. Historic trends and future projections are not available, neither in quantity nor quality.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No subhabitats need to be distinguished within this type for further analysis.

Contributors:
Habitat Definition: J. Loidi
Territorial data: J.A. Campos, J. Capelo, D. Espírito-Santo, D. Viciani
Working Group Forests: F. Attorre, R.-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
E1.3a Mediterranean closely grazed dry grassland

Habitat Description:
These grasslands consist of heavily grazed pastures, mostly by sheep. They are usually found on fine clay/silt soils and on flat areas, often at low elevations, which are intensively grazed and trampled by livestock. Due to grazing, their soils are often eutrophic, although they contain low abundance of nitrophilous plant species, probably due to the xerothermic conditions of these areas and to the effect of soil compaction by trampling. These anthropogenic grasslands are dry in early summer, but with the first autumn rains sprout and grow rapidly, remaining green and fertile during the winter. The dominating species, usually hemicryptophytes and chamaephytes such as Poa bulbosa and clovers, are characterized by grazing-tolerant mechanisms (e.g. rosettes) and low height. Such grasslands are found mostly in the Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean zone of the western and central Mediterranean basin, including N-W Africa; their eastern distribution limit lies within the Balkan Peninsula. Depending on the environmental conditions and the geographic location, these grasslands include:
(a) Communities on acidic soils that tend to create uniform turfs with grasses and legumes adapted to grazing (e.g. Poa bulbosa, Aira caryophyllea, Trifolium subterraneum, Trifolium nigrescens). In Portugal these grasslands, among others, serve as very important food resources for wild rabbit populations and consequently for the diet of several important birds of prey, such as Aquila adalberti.
(b) Communities on clay soils of the western Mediterranean dominated by low hemicryptophytes and therophytes adapted to very intensive grazing, such as species with rosettes. The most common species of these grasslands are Plantago serraria and Trifolium subterraneum, while some of the diagnostic species are Paronychia echinulata, Erodium primulaceum and Biscutella baetica.
(c) Mesophilous grasslands of southern Italy which are usually the result of forest degradation. The most common species of these grasslands are Bellis perennis, Barbarea bracteosa, Trifolium repens, Poa bulbosa, Plantago cupanii and several others, some of which are endemic to Sicily.
(d) Communities of the southern Balkan Peninsula on fine clay soils (sometimes also in humid salty soils) around intensively grazed areas. In these early spring communities typical species develop from February to the end of March gradually drying out until summer, and only some C4 (drought-resistant species) plants can be found afterwards (e.g. Achnatherum bromoides). The most common species of these grasslands are Romulea spp., Hedypnois rhagadioloides, Hypochoeris cretensis.
Indicators of good quality:
·       Presence of traditional grazing regime without signs of abandonment
·       Absence of indication of significant, crevice-like, erosion
·       Absence (or very low cover) of nitrophilous species
·       No signs of secondary succession (e.g. encroachment of chamaephytes or shrub species)
Characteristic species:
Flora: Vascular plants: Achillea coarctata, Acinos alpinus, Aira caryophyllea, Allium guttatum, Alyssum desertorum, Anthemis arvensis subsp. spacelata, Astragalus cymbaecarpos, Astragalus echinatus, Astragalus incanus, Astragalus macrorhizus, Astragalus pelecinus, Astragalus scorpioides, Astragalus sesameus, Astragalus stella, Barbarea bracteosa, Bellis annua, Bellis perennis, Biscutella baetica, Carex caryophyllea, Convolvulus lineatus, Crepis zacintha, Erodium botrys, Erodium cavanillesii, Erodium primulaceum, Festuca trichophylla subsp. trichophylla, Galium murale, Gynandriris sisyrinchium, Hedypnois rhagadioloides, Herniaria glabra var. glaberrima, Herniaria glabra var. glabra, Hordeum murinum subsp. leporinum, Hypochoeris cretensis, Hypochoeris radicata subsp. platylepis, Lagurus ovatus, Linaria simplex, Lolium perenne, Lotus angustissimus, Lotus corniculatus, Lupinus micranthus, Medicago intertexta, Merendera filifolia, Moenchia erecta, Myosotis ramosissima, Onobrychis humilis, Ophrys incubacea, Ornithogalum collinum, Parentucellia latifolia, Paronychia argentea, Plantago albicans, Plantago coronopus, Plantago cupanii, Plantago lagopus, Plantago lanceolata, Plantago loeflingii, Plantago serraria, Poa bulbosa, Poa trivialis, Potentilla calabra, Ranunculus bullatus, Ranunculus paludosus, Ranunculus pseudomillefoliatus, Romulea bulbocodium, Romulea linaresii subsp. graeca, Romulea ramiflora, Scorpiurus vermiculatus, Scorzonera villosiformis, Taraxacum obovatum, Teucrium capitatum, Thymus spinulosus, Trifolium bocconei, Trifolium bivonnae, Trifolium cherleri, Trifolium gemellum, Trifolium glomeratum, Trifolium micranthum, Trifolium nigrescens, Trifolium pallidum, Trifolium pratense subsp. semipurpureum, Trifolium repens, Trifolium scabrum, Trifolium subterraneum, Trifolium suffocatum, Trifolium tomentosum, Trigonella gladiata, Urospermum picroides, Vulpia sicula.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.31 West Mediterranean xeric grassland
E1.32 Southwestern Mediterranean perennial pastures
E1.33 East Mediterranean xeric grassland
EurovegCheckList:
Plantaginion serrariae Galán de Mera et al. 2000
Plantaginion cupanii S. Brullo et Grillo 1978
Poo bulbosae-Astragalion sesamei Rivas Goday et Ladero 1970
Romulion Oberd. 1954
Trifolio subterranei-Periballion minutae Rivas Goday 1964.
Annex I:
6220 *Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the Thero-Brachypodietea
Emerald:
E1.3 Mediterranean xeric grassland
MAES-2:
Terrestrial - Grasslands
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
These closely grazed dry grasslands are typical of the Mediterranean region, where they find optimal climatic conditions for their development. They concur in shaping a cultural landscape linked to the traditional land use of these areas, now increasingly at risk of disappearance due to different economic priorities and changing customs of the local populations.

Map Description:
The map is incomplete, depending on availability of data in EVA database, but rather complete for Spain. Data sources: EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
The quantitative trend of this habitat type is of a slight decrease (3% on average, based on the weighted average of data and trends provided by Spain, Portugal, Italy and Bosnia and Herzegovina), with significant local tendencies to a reduction only in Portugal and Bosnia and Herzegovina (about 50% in both countries in the last 50 years). The areas in these countries are rather small, consequently their relatively strong reduction does not affect the average trend in quantity, however it indicates that this habitat is seriously threatened at the national level. Spain and Italy account for the largest areas, with 6,698 and 477 km2 respectively. A stable situation has been reported in Italy, while a slight decrease (2%) have been reported in Spain.

Trends in Quality:
Reported information on qualitative declines is only available for Italy, Bulgaria and Bosnia-Herzegovina (from moderate to severe). On average, it affects an extent of 20% of the total area of the habitat with a severity of about 55%. It should be noted that data from Spain could not be used for the quality assessment, since no qualitative indications were given by the experts, although they reported s general decrease. Being the Spanish area by far the largest for this habitat type, more detailed information is needed to proceed with a more complete qualitative assessment.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Since data from Croatia, Malta and part of the Balkan Peninsula are still missing, more than 99% of the known European distribution area of this habitat type lies inside the EU 28 territory. With quantitative data from Albania, Montenegro and Kosovo perhaps the rate of presence out of EU28 might increase; however, this habitat type is mostly represented in Spain and Mediterranean Italy. No data are available to quantify the distribution area of this habitat outside of Europe (in northwestern Africa).

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The geographical range of the habitat (EOO) is very wide and the observed decline in extent is moderate.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The geographical range of the habitat (EOO) is very wide.

Pressures and Threats:
The main pressures to this habitat type are the following: the abandonment of traditional management of pastoral systems and the related lack of grazing, also due to a drastic reduction in the number of livestock in rural areas in the last decades; the consequent biocenotic evolution and succession, and the transformation into arable land with agriculture intensification. At the local level, urbanization, reforestation and pollution can have an impact on the quantitative and qualitative decline of this habitat type. Fire can be another important factor, both because of high frequency as well as for its supression. According to the territorial experts, some major effects of the indicated pressures include area loss, changes in the species composition and ruderalisation, changes in the local ecological conditions, overgrowing by shrubs and woody species, degradation and loss of genuine specific composition. Indeed, this habitat type is strongly linked to human management and traditional grazing activities (especially by sheep and cattle) and the major threat is the abandonment of these practices. On the other side, for some areas (e.g. FYRO Macedonia) it is also indicated that due to global climate change, the surface of this habitat might increase and expand from the south to the central parts of the country. A similar scenario can occur in other Mediterranean countries.

Conservation and Management:
The general deep transformation and loss of the traditional grazed landscapes is affecting most of the seminatural dry grasslands all over central and southern Europe, including this habitat type. Promotion, and in many cases reintroduction, of the traditional pastoral systems with intensive grazing are the most effective ways (and probably the only ones) for the conservation of these complex systems and their landscape. A controlled use of fire can also represent an effective way to maintain this habitat type. The establishment of protected areas, supported by an active protection of habitats and landscapes, might enhance the conservation of this habitat type, based on proper protocols for a correct management.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
6220*: CON U1, MED U1, ALP unknown

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Being a semi-natural habitat almost completely dependant on correct management, the typical character and functionality can only be recovered once the traditional intensive grazing activity is re-established. The floristic composition should include plant species well adapted to grazing, depending on the proximity of a seed source, although a basic role in the colonization is provided by the grazing animals who act as vectors for the dissemination.

Summary:
These are heavily-grazed pastures of the Mediterranean basin, mostly on silt and clay soils in the lowlands, dominated by rosette plants and small grasses tolerant of intensive herbivory and trampling. The soils are dry in summer which helps exclude nitrophilous plants that might be encouraged by dunging, but refreshed by autumn rains, the herbage remains green and productive through the winter, providing valuable forage. Companion plants vary widely across the large range.  Though threatened by abandonment of traditional management and more locally by afforestation, urbanisation and pollution, there has been little reduction in extent, but a more substantial loss in quality in some regions.

References:
Apostolova, I., Dengler, J., Di Pietro, R., Gavilán, R.G., Tsiripidis, I. 2014. Dry grasslands of southern Europe: syntaxonomy, management and conservation. Hacquetia 13/1: 5-18.
Bacchetta, G, Brullo, S., Giusso, Del Galdo, G., Guarino, R. 2005. Indagine fitosociologica sulle praterie a Brachypodium retusum (Pers.) Beauv. della Sardegna. Parlatorea, 7: 27-38.
Bagella, S, Caria, M.C., Farris, E., Rossetti, F., Filigheddu, R. 2014. Traditional land uses enhanced plant biodiversity in a Mediterranean agro-silvo-pastoral system. Plant Biosystems. doi: 10.1080/11263504.2014.943319
Bagella, S., Filigheddu, R., Caria, M.C., Girlanda, M., Roggero, P.P. 2014. Contrasting land uses in Mediterranean agro-silvo-pastoral systems generated patchy diversity patterns of vascular plants and below-ground microorganisms. Comptes Rendus Biologies. doi: 10.1016/j.crvi.2014.09.005
Bagella, S., Salis, L., Marrosu, G.M., Rossetti, I., Fanni, S., Caria, M.C., Roggero, P.P. 2013. Effects of long-term management practices on grassland plant assemblages in Mediterranean cork oak silvo-pastoral systems. Plant Ecology, 214: 621-631.
Biondi, E. and Bagella, S. 2005. Vegetazione e paesaggio vegetale dell’arcipelago di La Maddalena (Sardegna nord-orientale). Fitosociologia,  42(2) suppl.1: 1-99.
Biondi, E., Ballelli, S., Allegrezza, M., Taffetani, F., Francalancia, C. 1994. La vegetazione delle "fiumare" del versante ionico lucano calabro. Fitosociologia, 27: 51-66.
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Allegrezza, M., Anzellotti, I., Azzella, M.M., Carli, E., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Facioni, L., Galdenzi, D., Gasparri, R., Lasen, C., Pesaresi, S., Poldini, L., Sburlino, G., Taffetani, F., Vagge, I., Zitti, S., Zivkovic, L. 2014. Plant communities of Italy: The Vegetation Prodrome. Plant Biosystems 148(4): 728-814. doi: 10.1080/11263504.2014.948527
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Brugiapaglia, E., Fogu, M. C., Mossa, L. 1994. La vegetazione nitrofila della città di Cagliari (Sardegna). Allionia, 32: 303-323.
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R., Zivkovic, L. 2009. Manuale Italiano di interpretazione degli habitat della Direttiva 92/43/CEE. Società Botanica Italiana. Ministero dell’Ambiente e della tutela del territorio e del mare, D.P.N. http://vnr.unipg.it/habitat/
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Pisanu, S., Farris, E., Caria, M.C., Urbani, M., Filigheddu, R., Bagella, S. 2014. Vegetation and plant landscape of Asinara National Park (Italy). Plant Sociology, 51: 31-57.
Ribeiro, S., Gonçalves, P. and Espírito-Santo, M.D. 2012. Land-use influence on Mediterranean perennial swards of Poa bulbosa: a case study in the International Tagus Region. Lazaroa 33: 51-64.
Rivas Goday, S. and Rivas Martínez, S. 1963. Estudio y clasificación de los pastizales españoles. Ministerio de Agricultura. Madrid, pp. 269.
Rivas-Martínez, S. Díaz T.E., Fernández-González, F., Izco, J., Loidi, J., Lousã, M., Penas, A. 2002. Vascular plant communities of Spain and Portugal. Addenda to the syntaxinomical checklist of 2001. Itinera Geobotanica 15(1-2): 5-922
Rodwell, J.S., Schaminée, J.H.J., Mucina, L., Pignatti, S., Moss, D. 2002. The diversity of European vegetation. An overview of phytosociological alliances and their relationship to EUNIS habitats. Report EC-LNV 2002/054, Wageningen.
San Miguel, A. 2008. Management of Natura 2000 habitats. 6220 *Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the Thero-Brachypodietea. European Commission.
ŠiliÄ‡, ÄŒ. 1972/1973. Nova nalazišta nekih rijetkih i manje poznatih biljnih vrsta u flori Bosne i Hercegovine. Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja Bosne i Hercegovine u Sarajevu, 11–12: 59–79.

Criterion A Text:
The trend in the last 50 years shows a reduction of about 3%, resulting in the category of Least Concern under Criterion A. The trend reported for this habitat type in the countries of occurrence is of slightly decreasing or even stable in some of them, while a remarkable decrease has been observed only in Portugal and in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it is only represented by small areas, whose conservation value appears consequently even higher. Spain accounts for the largest surface and for that country only a decrease of 2% is reported, indicating that in spite of the general tendency to an abandonment of the traditional grazing activities, the actual overall decline of this habitat type is not so large, although the reduction is expected to be more serious in the next future. No data is available to calculate the future and the historical decline of this habitat type.

Criterion B Text:
The ongoing tendency to abandon the traditional grazing activities represents a threatening process likely to cause continuing declines in quantity and/or quality for this habitat type within the next 20 years. A future reduction in the spatial extent can be realistically predicted as a consequence of the dynamic processes of the vegetation, causing floristic and phytocoenotical changes affecting the biotic quality of the habitat. However the values of EOO and AOO largely exceed the indicated thresholds and as a consequence the assessment of this habitat type results in the category of Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
Only few countries reported about the qualitative decline: Italy, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina (from moderate to severe). Based on the provided trends for extent and severity of degradation, a qualitative decline affects an extent of 20% of the total area with a degree of severity of 55% on average. It should be noted that for Spain no qualitative trends are available, so data from this country could not be included in the calculation of the parameters, but the expert's opinions have reported on a general decline in the area. The Spanish area being by far the largest for this habitat type, more detailed information is needed to proceed with a more complete qualitative assessment. Based on the available data, the application of Criterion C/D1 brings to assess this habitat type as Least Concern.

Synthesis:
The habitat type is assessed as Least Concern at the EU28 and EU28+ levels since, although a decline in quantity and quality has been reported, it is not declining fast enough as to qualify for a threatened category. The quantitative trend shows a slight decrease in the last 50 years (3% on average), indicating that in spite of the general tendency to abandon the traditional grazing activities, still the actual decline for this habitat type is not so severe, although the reduction is expected to be far more serious in the next future. The values of EOO and AOO largely exceed the thresholds for higher levels of threat. Only few countries reported about the qualitative decline, with average values not qualifying for any threatened category. Further research is needed on the quality trends, especially for Spain, accounting for the largest area.

Contributors:
Type description: G. Fotiadis & M. Vrahnakis
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, J. Capelo, L. Casella, D. Espírito-Santo, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, C. Gussev, J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, V. Matevski, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, S. Sciandrello, D. Viciani
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
C2.3 Permanent non-tidal, smooth-flowing watercourse

Habitat Description:
This habitat includes permanent watercourses with non-turbulent water and their associated pelagic and benthic animal, algal and plant communities. The habitat includes slow-flowing rivers, streams, brooks, rivulets, rills and also relatively fast-flowing rivers with laminar flow. The bed is typically composed of sand or mud. Features of the river bed, uncovered by low water or permanently emerging, such as sand or mud islands and bars are treated as littoral zone (C3) and are not included in this habitat. This habitat includes stretches of streams and river at mid and low-altitude with an average flow velocity below 0.2 m/sec. Main physical differences between this habitat type and C.2.2b (Permanent non-tidal, fast, turbulent watercourses of plains and mountain regions with Ranunculus ssp.) are the lower flow velocity and the smaller grain size of the sediments. These two habitats may be related as segments of the same stream or river. The water is mesotrophic and buffered.
The vegetation is mainly constituted by rooted and floating Euro-Asiatic macrophytes, mainly with potamid, batrachid and utricularid growth forms, which belong to the Potamogetonion and Batrachion fluitantis communities. Potamid vegetation can be accompanied in slowly flowing parts of the river bed by nymphaeid species such as Nymphaea alba and Nuphar lutea. Also amphibian macrophytes may occur in this habitat with their aquatic form. Vegetation cover of the habitat, usually, does not exceed 30% of the total area of a river stretch.
Indicators of good quality:
Morphologically unaltered river bed and banks
Natural hydrological regime
Avoid of dominance of algae and floating algae beds (FLAB)
No or limited formation of floating mats of organic residuals
No or limited occurrence of exotic species
Limited extension of nymphaeid vegetation or species indicating high eutrophication

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Ranunculus aquatilis, R. circinatus, R. trichophyllus, Berula erecta, Butomus umbellatus, Callitriche spp. (e.g. C. hamulata, C. cophocarpa), Helosciadium nodiflorum, Mentha aquatica, Nasturtium officinale, Potamogeton berchtoldii, P. perfoliatus, P. crispus, P. polygonifolius, P. gramineus, P. pusillus, P. lucens, P. pectinatus, P. natans, P. nodosus, P. coloratus, Rorippa amphibia, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Scirpus lacustris, Sium latifolium, Sparganium emersum, S. erectum, Veronica beccabunga, V. anagallis-aquatica, Zannichellia palustris.
Bryophytes: Drepanocladus spp., Fontinalis antipyretica, F. hypnoides, Rhynchostegium ripariodes, Warnstorfia spp.
Macroinvertebrates: Potamon fluviatile, Austropotamobius pallipes and benthic invertebrates of the orders Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Amphipoda, Isopoda, Arhynchobdellida. 
Vertebrates: Salmo trutta, S. salar, Cotus gobio, Leuciscus souffia, Squalius cephalus, Barbus barbus, Perca fluviatilis, Lampetra fluviatilis, Coregonus lavaretus, Thymallus thymallus, Aspium aspium, Esox lucius, Castor fiber, Lutra lutra, Salamandrina terdigitata, Triturus cristatus, T. carnifex, T. alpestris, Rana spp.

Classification:
EUNIS:
C2.3 Permanent non-tidal, smooth-flowing watercourses
EuroVegChecklist:
Potamogetonion Libbert 1931
Nymphaeion albae Oberd. 1957
Batrachion fluitantis Neuhäusl 1959
Ranunculion aquatilis Passarge 1964
Annex 1:
3250 Constantly flowing Mediterranean rivers with Glaucium flavum
3260 Water courses of plain to montane levels with the Ranunculion fluitantis
Emerald:
C2.33 Mesotrophic vegetation of slow-flowing streams
C2.34 Eutrophic vegetation of slow-flowing streams
MAES-2:
Fresh water, Rivers and lakes, Inland surface waters (water coursed and bodies)
IUCN:
5.1. Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks [includes waterfalls]
Water Framework Directive:
R-C1, R-C4, R-C5, R-C6

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is spread across whole Europe.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete for EU28, but probably incomplete for EU28+, especially in the Balkan. Data sources: Art17, GBIF.

Comment EU28:
Only 50% of the countries provided the total area.

Comment EU28+:
Only 33% of the countries provided the total area.

Trends in Quantity:
Despite the fact that this habitat is expected to occur in 90% of the European countries, only around 50% of the countries within EU 28 and Bosnia and Herzegovina (in EU 28+) provided quantitative data. Most countries stated that the habitat has decreased during the last 50 or 60 years (from 1950 up to now) due to artificial changes in the water regime of rivers. A decrease of the habitat between 20 and 28% has been calculated. Despite this general past trend, 10 countries reported that the habitat is currently stable and 1 (Portugal) that the habitat is presently even increasing. There are not sufficient data regarding the long-term historic (before 1950) and future trend in quantity.

Trends in Quality:
Almost all countries that provided data reported a decreasing trend in quality during the last 50 or 60 years (from 1950 up to now) with 20 to 90% of the habitat surface in the country affected by a slight to severe degradation. The trend in quality for whole Europe resulted in a relative severity of degradation of 52% affecting 42% of the total extent of the habitat in EU 28 and in a relative severity of degradation of 33% affecting 44% of the total extent of the habitat in EU 28+. Lack of information about this habitat exists for 50% of the involved European countries.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
The percentage of the habitat type in the EU 28 is (very roughly) estimated to be about 10-20%, based on an assumed Eurasian distribution of the habitat worldwide. In Europe 50-60% of this habitat type lies within the EU 28. The rest is across EU 28+ countries. However the same or very similar habitat type can be found in countries outside EU 28 and EU 28+ like Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Turkey, etc.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The geographical range of the habitat (EOO) is very wide and seems far to go over 50,000 Km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat does not have an intrinsically restricted area. It is of course limited to lowland water courses, but these may stretch over many kilometres.

Pressures and Threats:
The most frequent pressures are alteration of the morphology and hydrology of rivers due to the production of hydroelectric energy, melioration and agricultural uses of the water. Pollution of surface- and groundwater and introduction of exotic plant and fish species are also indicated as very frequent pressures for this habitat type as well as fishing activities.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat is threatened mainly by human activities. The conservation and management actions should involve in all countries the regulation of water abstraction, agricultural and industrial activities in the river basin (that are usually the main source of water pollution), fishing and extraction of sand and gravel from the river bed. Regulations and management actions have been already applied in some countries, favouring in this way the stabilization of the current habitat conditions. Management actions still not adopted by all countries are the maintenance of the environmental flow and the maintenance of natural buffer zones between the river beds and the fields. These zones are very important environmental filters for organic and inorganic pollutants and should be recreated for restoring and managing the habitat quality.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
3260: ATL U2, BLS U1, BOR U2, CON U1, MED U2, PAN U1, STE FV
There is only a small overlap, as this Annex 1-type relates better to Red List types C2.2b

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The capacity of this habitat to recover naturally differs according to the type of damage that the habitat has undergone. If the damage had an impact on the hydrology and geomorphology the recovery time can be quite long and it is not always possible to restore the habitat. If the damage is represented by pollution of water bodies, the habitat can be restored in a relatively short time (10 years, or even less) through intervention and removal of the causes of pollution.

Summary:
Permanent smooth-flowing waters occur widely through the European lowlands, but relatively less commonly to the south, in slow-flowing rivers, streams, brooks, rivulets, rills and also in stretches of relatively fast-flowing rivers with laminar flow. The waters are typically mesotrophic, the bed is typically composed of sand or mud and the vegetation is mainly aquatic macrophytes and amphibious vascular plants. The habitat is important for many fish species, waterbirds and aquatic insects. Increasing eutrophication and pollution of the water bodies and artificial regulation of the water regime of rivers and streams are major threats and both flora and fauna have seen the arrival of many non-native species.  If pollution can be ameliorated, the habitat may be restored in a relatively short time.

References:
AuniÅ†š, A. (ed) 2013. European Union. Protected habitats in Latvia. Interpretation manual, 2nd edition. p. 32-35.
Berg, C., Dengler, J., Abdank, A. and Isermann, M. 2004. De Pflanzengesellschaften Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns un ihre Gefährdung. Textband. 606 pages. Landesamt für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Geologie Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Weissdorn-Verlag Jena. p. 86-92.
Dawson, F.H. 1988. Water flow and the vegetation of running waters. In: Symoens, J.J. (ed.). Vegetation of inland waters. Handbook of vegetation science vol. 15, p. 283-309.
Gaudillat, V., Haury, J., Barbier, B. and Peschadour, F. (Coord) 2002. Cahiers d’habitats – Tome 3 – Habitats humides. La Documentation française, Paris, 457 pp.

Criterion A Text:
The calculated trend in quantity resulted in a reduction of 28% of the habitat area in EU 28 and 20% in EU 28+ during the last 50 years that corresponds respectively to the categories Near Threatened for EU 28 and Least Concern for EU 28+. This calculation was performed using the quantitative data available, which however represent probably only 46% of the total countries in which the habitat should occur in EU 28 and 31% in EU 28+. Among the additional countries in EU 28+ only Bosnia and Herzegovina provided data. Data about historic (before 1950) and future are not available for most European countries.

Criterion B Text:
The habitat is largely extended in Europe therefore both EOO and AOO are far from the thresholds required by criterion B to consider the habitat threatened. However spatial extent, biotic and abiotic quality of the habitat are in continuing decline.

Criterion C/D Text:
The reduction in biotic and abiotic quality over the last 50 years affected 42% of the extent of the habitat in EU 28 countries with a severity of 52% and 33% of the extent of the habitat in EU 28+ with a severity of 44%. This calculation is based on data provided by only 39% of the countries in which the habitat is expected to occur in EU 28 and 27% additional countries in EU 28+. According to criterion C/D the habitat is Near Threatened for EU 28 and Least Concern for EU 28+, however an underestimation or overestimation of the reduction in biotic and abiotic quality may be due to the large gap of data. There are not sufficient data to estimate the historic and future trend in quality. No distinct data about biotic and abiotic quality of the habitat exists for most countries.

Criterion E Text:
No data are available for applying criterion E.

Synthesis:
The habitat reaches the qualification of Near Threatened (NT) for the EU28, because of a large reduction in quality (criterion C/D1) and quantity (criterion A1) over the last 50 years. For the EU28+ the conclusion is Least Concern (LC). The assessment was carried out using data from about 46% of the EU28 countries and 31% of the additional EU28+ countries.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat may be further differentiated according to ecological conditions as determined by the climatic, geographic and geological conditions in which it develops. Therefore the habitat may be more threatened in some parts of Europe rather than othe

Contributors:
Type description: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen,
Territorial data:  E. Agrillo, G. Arts, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Brophy, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, J.-M. Couvreur, R. Delarze, L. Denys, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, D. Gigante, G. Giusso del Galdo, P. Ivanov, G. Király, T. Kontula, A. Leyssen, C. Mainstone, A. Mikolajczak, J.A. Molina, N. Juvan, C. Marcenò, D. Paelinckx, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, S. Sciandre,  Å½. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, K. Šumberová
Working Group Freshwater Habitats: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen


Habitat Type Name:
E1.2a Semi-dry perennial calcareous grassland

Habitat Description:
These grasslands generally dominated by broad-leaved graminoids (especially Brachypodium pinnatum agg. and Bromus erectus) are typical of traditionally-managed pastures and meadows developed on relatively deep, nutrient-poor, usually calcareous soils from sea-level to the montane belt throughout temperate Europe.  The swards are generally closed, with a plant cover of more than 80% and often are very rich in species, for which reason they are of high interest for nature conservation. Sites that harbour a conspicuous orchid flora – both in number of species and in number of individual plants – are given a priority status by Natura 2000. The centre of distribution is in suboceanic and submediterranean regions, and outside this range, the communities can be found only under specific conditions: towards northwestern Europe where they are more confined to relatively warm and dry, southern exposed calcareous slopes or, as in the Baltic islands of Öland and Gotland, on low altitude limestone pavement (alvar).  The species composition varies over the geographical range, reflected by different sets of companions: in southern Europe, there are many sub-mediterranean species, whereas in Eastern Europe continental species are of more importance.
Syntaxonomically, the semi-dry perennial calcareous grasslands form a separate order (Brachypodietalia pinnati) within the class Festuco-Brometea. Here we also include the remaining meso-xeric types that are currently still placed in other Festuco-Brometea orders, namely most of the East-European meso-xeric order Galietalia veri as well as the alliance Brachypodion phoenicoidis from North Iberia and South France (traditionally in the order Brachypodietalia phoenicoidis) and the Illyrian Scorzonerion villosae (traditionally placed in the order Scorzonero villosae-Chrysopogenetalia grylli).  The specific characteristics  of mostly closed swards, deep soils, semi-natural character and temperate climate help delineate this habitat type from similar vegetation types on rocky calcareous soils (E1.1g) or under drier conditions in Eastern Europe (E1.2b), both of which are generally dominated by narrow-leaved graminoids.
Being mostly semi-natural and needing management, i.e. grazing by sheep and/or cattle and hay-making, where these practices have ceased for economic reasons throughout Europe, abandonment is one of the main threats when tall grasses (e.g. Brachypodium pinnatum agg., Calamagrostis epigejos) and tall forbs will take over the vegetation within a couple of years, and eventual encroachment of woody species will transform the community first into scrub, then forest. Sometimes, the stands are burned in spring time to destroy standing dead material, which encourages the growth of grasses and so helps prevent any further development of shrubs and trees. Another serious risk is intensification, as deeper calcareous soils can be rather easily transformed into productive agricultural land when competitive grasses like Lolium perenne, Dactylis glomerata and Poa trivialis can outcompete the characteristic grasses and herbs. Nowadays, many sites are managed in the traditional way for the sake of nature conservation.
Indicators of good quality:
High species richness
Absence of nutrient-demanding and ruderal species
Long-term habitat stability
Generally closed sward with low vegetation structure
Traditional grazing/mowing regime
Low cover of encroaching tall grasses, shrubs and trees.

Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Adonis vernalis, Anacamptis pyramidalis, Anthyllis vulneraria, Arabis hirsuta, Brachypodium pinnatum, Brachypodium phoenicoides, Brachypodium rupestre, Briza media, Bromus erectus, Campanula glomerata, Carex caryophyllea, Carex flacca, Carlina acaulis, Carlina vulgaris, Centaurea scabiosa, Chrysopogon gryllus, Danthonia alpina, Dianthus carthusianorum, Eryngium campestre, Euphorbia cyparissias, Festuca guestfalica, Festuca rupicola, Filipendula vulgaris, Fragaria viridis, Galium pumilum, Galium verum, Gentiana cruciata, Gentianella ciliata, Gentianella germanica, Gymnadenia conopsea, Helianthemum nummularium subsp. ovatum, Helictotrichon pratense, Hypochoeris maculata, Knautia illyrica, Koeleria pyramidata, Leontodon hispidus, Linum catharticum, Lotus corniculatus, Medicago sativa subsp. falcata, Neotinea ustulata, Onobrychis viciifolia, Ononis spinosa, Ophrys apifera, Ophrys insectifera, Orchis mascula, Orchis militaris, Orchis morio, Orchis purpurea, Orchis ustulata, Plantago media, Polygala comosa, Potentilla heptaphylla, Primula veris, Ranunculus bulbosus, Salvia pratensis, Sanguisorba minor, Scabiosa columbaria, Scorzonera villosa, Thesium linophyllum, Thymus pulegioides, Trifolium montanum, Veronica prostrata, Veronica teucrium.
Bryophytes: Ctenidium molluscum, Entodon concinnus, Homalothecium lutescens, Hypnum cupressiforme var. lacunosum, Thuidium philibertii.
Fauna
Birds: Lanius collurio.
Reptiles: Lacerta agilis.
Insects: Papilio machaon

Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.2 Perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes
EuroVegChecklist:
Brachypodion phoenicoidis Br.-Bl. ex Molinier 1934
Bromion erecti Koch 1926
Chrysopogono-Danthonion Kojic 1957
Cirsio-Brachypodion pinnati Hadac et Klika in Klika et Hadac ex Klika 1951
Filipendulo vulgaris-Helictotrichion pratensis Dengler et Löbel in Dengler et al. 2003
Gentianello amarellae-Helictotrichion pratensis Royer ex Dengler in Mucina et al. 2009
Polygalo mediterraneae-Bromion erecti (Biondi et al. 2005) Di Pietro et al. 2013
Potentillo splendentis-Brachypodion pinnati Br.-Bl. 1967
Scorzonerion villosae Horvatic 1963
Annex 1:
6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia) (*important orchid sites) p.p. (meso-xeric types)
62A0 Eastern sub-mediterranean dry grasslands (Scorzoneretalia villosae) p.p. (meso-xeric types = Scorzonerion villosae)
6240 Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands p.p. (meso-xeric types = Cirsio-Brachypodion pinnati)
6270 Fennoscandian lowland species-rich dry to mesic grasslands p.p. (dry basiphilous types = Filipendulo vulgaris-Helictotrichion pratensis)
Emerald:
E1.2 Perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes
MAES-2:
Grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is widespread in Europe, occurring in many regions.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete, but partly over-estimated because of the data from the broader defined Annex I type 6210. Data sources: Art17, EVA, GBIF, NAT.

Comment EU28:
Calculated with 1850 kmÂ² instead of 5.5 kmÂ² for Romania, which is still a low estimate

Trends in Quantity:
Recent trend EU28: -40% - EU28+: -39% (based on 99.8% of the total area reported). Long-term trend EU28: -58% - EU28+: -55% (based on 42% of the total area reported). However, there are big differences among countries. Recent decrease reaches as high as 96% (Latvia) and long-term decrease as high as 97% (United Kingdom). For the future, most countries expect further decreases, but some also stable to increasing areas.

Trends in Quality:
Within EU28, 41% of the remaining area are degraded with 54% severity, while within EU28+ 41% of the remaining area are degraded with 58% severity.

Justification of Restricted Area:
EEO is >> 50,000 km² and the habitat may occur in large stands.

Pressures and Threats:
This habitat type is overwhelmingly semi-natural in the territories considered, depending on low-intensity agriculture, either mowing or grazing without fertilisation other than from the dung of stock. Such low-intensity systems are not profitable any more under present socio-economic conditions and therefore there is a strong trend either to intensify to increase the fodder production or to abandon the traditional agricultural practice, so as not to have the costs. Throughout Europe, such low productivity grassland habitats are also subject to aforestation, often with non-native trees. Other threats mentioned in some countries are mining (usually for limestone), urbanisation, air-borne eutrophication and climate change.

Conservation and Management:
The current main approach to maintain this enigmatic habitat type (because of its species richness and particularly its often many orchids) is to put it under legal protection as nature reserves. However, this alone does not help because E1.2a as a semi-natural habitat type needs regular low-intensity agricultural management, which is not automatically guaranteed through legal protection, indeed it is often even harder to manage areas by mowing or grazing when they are part of nature reserves. Maintaining or re-establishing low-intensity management of such low-productivity grasslands can be done by conservation NGOs (mowing) or subsidised shepherds, but probably this is realistic only on a small fraction of the remaining area. To retain bigger amounts of this habitat type, one probably has to think about other measures to halt succession that deviate from the traditional management of the region. Large-scale pasture landscapes with year-round multispecies grazing might offer an economically feasible solution. One also should take into account prescribed burning as a possible method, though more knowledge is needed here to decide under which conditions it is positive rather than counterproductive.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
6120 ATL U2, BOR U2, CON U2, MED XX, PAN U2
6240 ALP U2, ATL U1, BLS U1, CON U1, PAN U1
6270 ALP U2, BOR U2, CON U2
62A0 ALP U2, BLS U1, CON U2, MED U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Restoration of semi-dry calcareous grasslands from afforested sites is possible if there is still a seedbank available. Even arable fields can be reconverted to this habitat type under certain conditions (if they were hardly fertilized); this can be facilitated by hay transfer or other means of diaspore input of target species.

Summary:
This habitat comprises semi-natural grasslands developed on deeper and not so drought-prone, nutrient-poor, base-rich soils over limestones throughout the lowlands and sub-montane levels of submediterranean to hemiboreal Europe. Generally closed and dominated by mixtures of graminoids and forbs, they can be extremely species rich, with many rare plants and sometimes striking contingents of orchids. They also vary considerably across the large range with different sets of continental or sub-mediterranean companions. Dependent on extensive grazing, usually with sheep, or on an annual mowing, abandonment has been a widespread threat, with ready progression to rank grassland, scrub and woodland; or the deeper soils have been appealing for shifts to more intensive farming with fertilising and re-seeding.  Developed over centuries, maybe even longer, and contributing to some striking cultural landscapes, this habitat has seen widespread and substantial losses in both extent and quality, especially in northern and western Europe. Recovery of the full flora after much neglect is problematic and recovery always demands restoration of traditional pastoral management.

References:
Dengler, J., Becker, T., Ruprecht, E., Szabó, A., Becker, U., Beldean, M., Bita-Nicolae, C., Dolnik, C., Goia, I., Peyrat, J., Sutcliffe, L.M.E., Turtureanu, P.D. and UÄŸurlu, E. 2012. Festuco-Brometea communities of the Transylvanian Plateau (Romania) – a preliminary overview on syntaxonomy, ecology, and biodiversity. Tuexenia 32: 319–359.
Löbel, S. and Dengler, J. 2008 [“2007”]. Dry grassland communities on southern Öland: phytosociology, ecology, and diversity. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica 88: 13–31.
Poschlod, P. and WallisDeVries, M. 2002. The historical and socioeconomic perspective of calcareous grasslands – lessons from the distant and recent past. Biological Conservation 104: 361–376.
Royer, J.-M. 1991. Synthèse eurosibérienne, phytosociologique et phytogéographique de la classe des Festuco-Brometea. Dissertationes Botanicae 178: 1–296.
Willems, J.H. 1982. Phytosociological and geographical survey of Mesobromion communities in Western Europe. Vegetatio 48: 227–240.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 are calculated from the territorial data sheets, which were available for 24 countries. The provided data were far too incomplete to allow assessment of A2a and A2b.

Criterion B Text:
EOO and AOO are far larger than the thresholds for the criteria B1 and B2. The habitat type has many occurrences throughout large parts of Europe.

Criterion C/D Text:
The data for C/D1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets, which provided assessments for 20 countries. No data were available for C/D2 and C/D3. The degradation quality refers to both biotic features and abiotic circumstances.

Synthesis:
Based on a reduction in quantity over the past 50 years (> 30%) and in the longer term (> 50%) this habitat type is vulnerable both in EU28 and EU28+ (VU). Furthermore, a significant reduction in biotic and abiotic quality results in a near-threat status (NT).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Although the threats to this habitat are more or less universal throughout its range, regional sub-types may be more endangered.

Contributors:
Type description: J.H.J. Schaminée (revised by J. Dengler).
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, J.M. Couvreur, R. Delarze, P. Finck, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, M. Janišová, R.G. Jefferson, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, T. Kontula, J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, J.R. Martin, A. Mikolajczak, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, E. Roosaluste, S. Rusina, S. Sciandrello, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, R. Tzonev, D. Viciani, E. Weeda.
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
G1.2b Temperate and boreal hardwood riparian woodland

Habitat Description:
These are mixed broadleaved woodlands typical of less-frequently flooded, well-aerated mineral soils in floodplains and around flushes on valley sides cut into shales and clay rocks or clayey superficial deposits throughout the nemoral and boreal zones with some extension into the sub-mediterranean.  The flooding regime can be by inundation of river water and/or by rising ground water in river valleys. They are especially characteristic of the middle and lower reaches of major European rivers such as the Rhine, Danube, Emst, Elbe, Saale, Weser, Loire-Allier and Rhone-Saône but also occur throughout Europe as smaller stands in younger river valleys. Occasional deposition of flood-borne silt or the concentration of nutrients and bases in flushes keep the soils fertile and, with the free drainage, there is a typically brisk turnover with mull humus. The high productivity of the soils has meant that these woodlands have been highly valued as sources of timber and the structure and composition have been much modified by exploitation.
The canopy in high-forest stands can be very tall and multi-layered and is typically dominated by various mixtures of Fraxinus excelsior, F. angustifoliae, Alnus glutinosa with A. incana towards the upper reaches of rivers outside the Atlantic zone, Populus alba, P. tremula, P. nigra, P. canescens, Acer pseudoplatanus, Quercus robur, Prunus avium, Ulmus glabra, U. minor and U. laevis. There is typically an abundant and varied understorey, again often structurally complex, with a range of small trees, shrubs and lianes that are more typical of mesic deciduous woodlands (such as G1.Aa Carpinus and Quercus woodland) than the wet woodlands of floodplains, swamps and fens. Among these species, Crataegus monogyna, Malus sylvestris, Eunomyus europaeus, Prunus padus, Clematis vitalba, Humulus lupulus, Tamus communis and Vitis vinifera are distinctive. Stands on spring-fed slopes with incompetent substrates often suffer landslips on the surface of which the trees and shrubs keel over at crazy angles.
 The field layer also has much in common with that of mesic deciduous woodland though some of the typical vernal dominants there, such as Hyacinthoides non-scripta, are excluded by the wetness of the ground, so it is geophytes like Anemone nemorosa, A. ranunculoides, Ranunculus ficaria, Ornithogalum umbellatum or sometimes Fritillaria meleagris which provide the springtime colour here. Becoming prominent later in the year is a contingent of plants of moist to wet, fresh fertile soils including some tall fen herbs such as Angelica sylvestris, Lysimachia vulgaris, Lythrum salicaria, Lycopus europaeus, Rumex sanguineus, Allium scorodoprasum and Filipendula ulmaria together with a diversity of bulky plants, for example Carex remota, C. pendula, C. strigosa, C. laevigata, Juncus effusus, Equisetum telmateia, whose local abundance can lend different stands a strikingly distinctive appearance. Ground-carpeting plants such as Aegopodium podagraria, Ranunculus repens and Poa trivialis and particular assemblages of herbs along the fringes of trickling water can add further character and complexity. Bryophytes are often extensive and luxuriant, providing a continuing green ground cover as the herbaceous plants die back in autumn.
Indicators of quality:
Less modified stands are reckoned to preserve some of the richest of the original European forests of larger floodplains but the diverse structures related to sylvicultural exploitation need not necessarily reduce or impair the overall floristic quality of the habitat.
Indicators of good quality are:
Signs of natural regeneration with an uneven-aged structure
Structural complexity, including old trees and the retention of fallen, dying and dead timber with a diversity of available niches for associated flora, fauna and fungi
Sufficient proportion of historically old (ancient) woodland with high species diversity
Intact natural hydrology: maintenance of the periodical to occasional flooding or flushing characteristic of the habitat
Survival of larger stands of forest without fragmentation and isolation
Absence of non-native tree species and of invasive aliens in all layers such as Impatiens glandulifera

Characteristic species:
Tree canopy: Acer pseudoplatanus, Alnus glutinosa, A. incana, Fraxinus excelsior, Populus alba, Populus nigra, Prunus padus, Quercus robur, Ulmus glabra, U. laevis, U. minor, Carpinus betulus, Prunus avium.
Understorey: Cornus sanguinea,Corylus avellana, Crataegus monogyna, Euonymus europaeus, Rubus caesius, Sambucus nigra,
Field layer: Aegopodium podagraria, Anemone nemorosa, Angelica sylvestris, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Carex acutiformis, C. laevigata, C. pendula, C. remota, C. strigosa, Equisetum telmateia, Elymus caninus, Festuca gigantea, Filipendula ulmaria, Galium aparine, Geranium robertianum, Geum urbanum, Glechoma hederaea, Hedera helix, Lycopus europaeus, Lysimachia vulgaris, Lythrum salicaria, Ranunculus ficaria, Rumex sanguineus, Silene dioica, Stachys sylvatica, Urtica dioca.

Classification:
EUNIS:
G1.2 Mixed riparian floodplain and gallery woodlandAnnex 1:
91F0 Riparian mixed forests of Quercus robur, Ulmus laevis and Ulmus minor, Fraxinus excelsior or Fraxinus angustifolia along the great rivers (Ulmenion minoris)
Emerald:
G1.22 Mixed Quercus - Ulmus - Fraxinus woodland of great rivers
MAES:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.1 Boreal Forest
1.4 Temperate Forest
Other relationships
EFT:
12.2 Fluvial forest
VME:
U3.1 Hardwood alluvial forests in combination with willow and poplar alluvial forests
ËƒU3.2 Alder-ash forests

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This is an azonal habitat type found along large rivers throughout the temperate European lowlands.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, with potential distribution for the Balkan. Data sources: EVA, Art17, BOHN.

Comment EU28:
2857 kmÂ² reported + separate data missing for Portugal Romania (no separate data for G1.2a/b) and Sweeden. the area is <400 kmÂ² in Romania, <176 in Portugal.Area overestimated in Croatia.

Comment EU28+:
The area reported is 3837 kmÂ² but data is missing for Serbia and Norway (fragments).

Trends in Quantity:
Litterature indicates that most of the original area of the habitat has been destroyed before the XVIIIth century, especially in North-western Europe (British Isles, Benelux, France...), because the areas occupied by former riparian forest in lower reaches of large rivers are located on very good agricultural lands (flat lands on fertile soil, easy to irrigate...). Moreover, many towns and infrastructures in Europe lie on former location of temperate and boreal hardwood riparian woodlands (most large cities are located near large rivers).
Clearing to make agricultural lands, towns and after the industrial revolution infrastructures and factories has gone on during the historical period (last 2 centuries), but another phenomenon has been even more damaging : most large European rivers have been regulated (canalisation, floodgates, damming...) in the XIX th century for the main Rhine, Rhône, Seine, Danube....). This has caused direct loss of riparian forests (to dig the canal replacing the former natural channels) but also a drastic reduction of the area of the floodplain (loss of flooding, vital for this habitat), as mensioned by territorial experts.
In most countries that are reporting an historical trend, it is a strong decrease (more than -50 to -95 % in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Hungary, "drastic decrease" in Italy). Swirzerland and Lithuania only report a -20 % historical decrease. The only countries to report an historical increase are Austria and the Netherlands. In Austria, it is an increase of degradated hardwood stands at the expense of G1.1 softwood riparian woodland due to river regulations, with a strong degradation in quality due to a lack of floods (the area has increased but the quality has dropped). In the Netherlands, the positive historical trend "results from an increase from almost nothing to rare and fragmented with very low quality" and only concerns a small arae.
An historical trend can be assessed by data from territorial experts on 58 % of the current area in EU 28+ (39% in EU 28), and the decline is -88 % in EU 28+ (-91% in EU 28). Even if we lack precise facts in some countries (Romania, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia, Italy) where large surfaces of the habitat can be found (and larger areas in the past), the trends are the same in those countries according to territorial experts (a "drastic decline" is reported in Italy) and litterature (Schnitzler-Lenoble 2007 ; Tockner, Uehhlinger and Robinson, 2009). 2 large European rivers gives a good example : the Danube and the Rhine. The Danube is the second largest European river (after the Volga in Russia), and flows accross (or along) Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria, Moldavia and Ukraine. About 72 to 75 % (15 000 km²) of the original floodplain (and the area of corresponding riparian habitats) of this large river has been lost in the middle and lower Danube valley (Tockner, Uehhlinger and Robinson, 2009). In Poland, where we don't have precise data (no territorial expert), only 1% of the original flooded (alluvial) forests remains (Schnitzler-Lenoble 2007). According to Dynesisus & Nilsson (1994), most large European rivers have been strongly (2/3rd) to moderately (less than 1/3rd) degradated, including a loss of riparian forests. The effect of Johann Gottfried Tulla correction of the Rhine river has been observed and former riparian woodlands have been not only degradatet in quality, but in the worst cases have evolved toward non-riparian beech-hornbeam forests, naturally or after beech plantation (Carbiener R. 1970 ; Michiels 2000, Boeuf et al. 2005, Boeuf 2014 p. 218-219). In France, Boeuf (comm. pers) reports a loss of 80% of the former Rhine river since XIXth century, according to maps made just before the regulation ("Etat-major" maps).
The decline is still going on according to territorial experts. A strong decreasing recent past trend is still reported in almost every country. The only country reporting an increase is the Netherlands but it is "an increase from almost nothing to rare and fragmented with very low quality". The situation is unknown in Norway and Sweeden, and stable in Estonia, but the area must be small there (only 7 km² in Estonia). The situation is also unknown in Serbia.
The current trend is still bad in most countries (decreasing in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia), because of the long term effects of a loss in quality (river regulation, no more floods, invasions of alien species, clearings). The situation is not as bad as the past one, an there is a stable current trend in some countries (Belgium, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland). Future trend remains unknown in most countries, and is mostly stable (Czech Republic, Estonia, the Netherlands, Switzerland) or decreasing (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, France, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Slovakia). An increase is only expected for the future in Germany and Belgium.

Trends in Quality:
A past-present trend in quality can be assessed on 86 % (in EU 28+) to 89 % (in EU 28)of the current area): a more than moderate decline (55% severity) is reported on 50 % of the area in EU 28. A similar decline (56% severity) is reported in EU 28+ but only on 42 % of the area.
The quality of the habitat is bad and has decreased in almost every country, because of a loss in hydraulic functionning (lowering of water table and loss of floods, invation of alien species, pollution especially eutrophisation since World war II.). Where the habitat has recolonised former riparian grasslands in north-western Europe (Allier river in France, in the Netherlands...), the quality remains poor (young stands with few deadwood and no veteran trees, many alien pioneer species as Robinia pseudoacacia...). An historical trend is only reported in a few countries, but a present past decline in quality is reported in most countries. The current trend is still bad (decrease in quality in 15 countries, stable in only 5, no trend in 3 countries). The future trend is only reported in a few countries but is not good (further decline expected in Italy and France due to land use change, river engineering and water pollution). Invasive species, disease (Phytophthora alni and Ask dieback) are expected in the UK, Belgium, Austria and Italy. Only Belgium and the Netherlands expect a good trend in the future, due to aging in protected areas).

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
No precise facts, but about 50 % of the worldwide distribution of the habitat could lie in EU 28+, and among those 50 % 2/3 in EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
Even if the decline in quantity is very important, the AOO and EOO remain large.

Justification of Restricted Area:
This habitat only occurs on the banks of large enought rivers, in their middle to lower courses.

Pressures and Threats:
Changes in hydrological conditions (especially lack of flooding and river regulation, also in some countries drying out and water abstraction for agriculture irrigation) is reported in most countries. The competition from invasive species is also frequently reported, followed by pollution and forestry (alien poplar plantation for example), and forestry clearance (for agriculture and urbanisation).
Agriculture is mentioned but for different reasons : pollution, forest clearing to make agricultural lands, and in some cases grazing in forests. Though rarely cited, fragmentation is also a big problem.

Conservation and Management:
Unlike other less endangered forest types, most of the last remaining Temperate and boreal hardwood riparian woodland should be strictly protected, at least in areas where the habitat has almost disappeared.
The keys to the conservation of the last Temperate and boreal hardwood riparian woodland are :
- a strict protection of the remaining sites, especially from expansion of land uses for urbanisation and agriculture, but also from Poplar plantation ;
- the last examples of nearly free flowing rivers should be protected from damming and river regulation. A free flowing river, with floodings allowing aggradation and nutriment deposits, soil and vegetation rejenuvation (erosion and destruction of trees). This mesure is easier to apply on small rivers (see "Alnus woodland on riparian and mineral soil") but much more difficult here, because large rivers often flown in urbanized areas. Where it is possible, it should be a priority, as Temperate and boreal hardwood riparian woodland is certainly one of the most endangered forest type. Such sites are located along rivers that are still free flowing, with floodings (at least in part of the middle to lower course), as the Allier river.
On damaged rivers, restoration is possible (restoring natural river banks by removing armour rocks, removing dams... if possible. Conservation or improvement of water quality. Even if the hydrological functionning is partly affected, the conservation of the habitat is crucial : maintaining only the habitat where the hydrological and biological conditions are perfect and the floristical composition completely unaltered would be impossible, because they have been degradated in most cases.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1:
91F0: ATL U1, ALP U2, BLS U1, BOR U2, CON U2, MED U2, PAN U1, STE U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Most interventions concern the hydrological functionning, but also in some cases a limitation of alien tree species if native ones cannot replace them (Robinia pseudoacacia if it is overabundant). When the typical trees have been replaced by alien poplar, the best thing to do is to let the spontaneous dynamic : poplars are neither shade tolerant nor not long-living trees, and native oaks, ashes, alders, elms, mapples etc... will grown easily under their cover until the poplar dies, and then replace them. The dead poplar will bring deadwood. A clearcut would favorize alien competitive species (Reynoutria, Impatiens glandulifera, Robinia...) and would make a restoration not only more expensive but also less efficient.

Summary:
Temperate and boreal hardwood riparian woodland is one of the richest woodland types in Europe with often majestic and diverse canopy, well-developed and tangled understorey and rich and distinctive field layer. It typically occurs in the middle to lower reaches of large rivers through the temperate and boreal zones, where there is a deep but wide water table, with flooding occuring some years and bringing rich silt and often also side-valley flushing. Canalisation of rivers, building of dams and watergates, clearance for agriculture, afforestation, urbanisation and industrialisation, with associated infrastructures along easy communication pathways, and the invasion of non-native species have all affected this habitat and remain threatening. Conservation demands the maintenance or restoration of natural hydrographic functionality, prevention of pollution and limiting encroachment by development.

References:
Tockner K., Uehlinger U., Robinson C.T.. Rivers of Europe. Academic Press, 31 janv. 2009 - 728 pages
Michles, H-G. & Aldinger, E., 2000.- Forstliche Standortsgliederung in der badischen Rheinaue - Allgemeine Forstzeitschrift AFZ Der Wald - Heft 15, Juli 2002 (Seite 811 - 815).
Boeuf R., Michiels H.-G., Hauschild R., 2005  Problématique du Querco-Ulmetum Issler 1924 devenu nomen ambiguum. Propositions sur la syntaxonomie de la forêt rhénane du Rhin supérieur. Bulletin de la Societe Botanique du Centre-Ouest – nouvelle serie tome 36 – 2005 p. 233 à 296.
Dynesius M. & Nilsson C. Fragmentation and Flow Regulation of River Systems in the Northern Third of the World. Umeå University, Umeå, Västerbotten, Sweden. Science 11/1994; 266(5186):753-762.
Boeuf R., Durand E , Hauschild R. 2007. Phytoecological approach of the alluvial forest of Rhine river.  Lavoisier SAS. Tous droits réservés
Carbiener R., 1970. Un exemple de type forestier exceptionnel pour l'Europe occidentale : la forêt du lit majeur du Rhin au niveau du fossé rhénan (Fraxino-Ulmetum Oberd 53) ; Intérêt écologique et biogéographique ; Comparaison à d'autres forêts thermohygrophiles ; Vegetatio, Acta Geobotanica, 18.3. Vol. 20.
Schnitzler-Lenoble A. 2007. Forêts alluviales d'Europe. Tec et Doc, Lavoisier. 387 p.

Criterion A Text:
The past-present trend in quantity is assessed on 83% of the area in EU28+ and 77% in EU28. It is a negative trend, but it is under the limit of -25% that qualifies the NT category. The historical reduction in quantity is worse and the EN category is reached. Even if this trend can only be assessed by facts on half of the area (48 % in EU28+), territorial experts opinion and litterature confirms this trend in most countries. In Italy, where 23% of the current EU28 area of the habitat can be found, territorial experts report a "drastic decline" in quantity during the historical period. Even if we lack precise data on half of the area, the historical decline in several countries (especially Germany, France, Bulgaria, Hungary in EU28, Bosnia and Herzegovina outsite EU28) has been so important that even a 25 to 50 % decline in Italy ("drastic" certainly correspond to much more than a 50% decline) would lead to more than 70% decline in the European area, even with the reported increase in Austria. With a hypothesis of +100 % increase in Austria (certainly very overestimated) and a hypothesis of -25% decrease in Italy (certainly very underestimated) on average a -85% decrease would be reached in EU28+ (covering 66 % of the EU28 area), which means the figures still qualify for the EN category. Because of the uncertainty the conclusion for A3 is Endangered (EN) for both EU28 and EU28+.

Criterion B Text:
EOO, AOO and number of locations are much larger than the thresholds for criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
A more than moderate decline (55% severity) is reported on 50% of the area in EU28, qualifying the VU category. A similar decline (56% severity) is reported in EU28+ but only on 42 % of the area, qualifying the NT category.

Synthesis:
The category Endangered (EN) can be assessed on EU28+ and is also chosen in EU28, because of a very substantial reduction in quantity over a historical period. This decline has continued more recently (last 50 years), with values close to the Near Threatened thresholds. The area is still decreasing, mostly in countries where the habitat has already been destroyed in most places (North-western Europe). The trend in quality is also bad leading to a Vulnerable (VU) category in the EU28, and slightly lower negative trends in EU28+. This assessment is in agreement with the conservation status of the corresponding Natura 2000 habitat (91F0), which has been assessed as "unfavourable-bad" in most regions.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat has (historically) decreased through all of the range, so no subtypes are needed.

Contributors:
Habitat definition : J. Rodwell & A. Ssymank
Territorial experts: P.A. Aarrestad, E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, L. Aunina, R-J. Bijlsma, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, L. De Keersmaeker, R. Delarze, M. Dimitrov, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, C. Marcenò, D. Paelinckx, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, B. Renaux, U. Riecken, I. Sell, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, A. Thomaes, M. ValachoviÄ, K. Vanderkerkhove, D. Viciani, L. Wibail, W. Willner
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
E1.1g Perennial grassland on rocky outcrops at low altitudes in Central and Southeastern Europe

Habitat Description:
These open to relatively closed perennial grasslands occur on outcrops and steep slopes of mostly calcareous but also siliceous rocks. They are dominated by graminoids such as Bromopsis pannonica, Bromus riparius, Carex humilis, Festuca dalmatica, Festuca pallens and various species of Sesleria and Stipa. Perennial herbs are common, whereas other life forms such as chamaephytes, therophytes and geophytes occur with various abundance, although they are found in most stands. The participation of annuals increases significantly in the southern parts of the habitat’s range because of the stronger Mediterranean influence. From the phytogeographical point of view, these grasslands combine central European species with numerous submediterranean, continental steppic and de-alpine species. Especially on limestone or dolomite these grasslands can be species-rich and contain some species with narrow geographic ranges. Phytosociologically, this habitat type corresponds to the order Stipo pulcherrimae-Festucetalia pallentis (class: Festuco-Brometea).
These grasslands are distributed at low hilly and submontane areas of the Bohemian Massif, Alps, Carpathians, and low mountains and hilly lowlands of the northern and central Balkan Peninsula. Westwards the habitat reaches North-East France and adjacent Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. At many sites these grasslands represent natural vegetation, but in some places they developed as secondary vegetation of deforested areas on shallow soils. Especially on dolomite slopes continuous weathering of the parent rock into gravel particles maintains constant soil erosion which limits encroachment of woody plants and keeps the landscape open. On limestone and dolomite slopes there is often a distinct contrast in vegetation on slopes of different aspect. South-facing slopes harbor more open vegetation, often with less than 50% cover, with dominance of narrow-leaved tussock grasses and aromatic semi-scrubs. In contrast, north-facing slopes support denser grasslands dominated by various species of Sesleria that contain several species typical of higher altitudes of the Alps or the Carpathians which have scattered and in many cases probably relict occurrences at lower altitudes. Soils are various subtypes of Leptosol.
Most of these grasslands occur in naturally treeless areas on steep and naturally eroded slopes that are difficult to access and unsuitable for agriculture. These grasslands are very stable and usually are not directly endangered unless they are destroyed by quarrying. However, secondary grasslands on less steep slopes were traditionally maintained by grazing, especially by goats. When grazing ceases, they are subject to encroachment of shrubs and trees.
Indicators of good quality:
Most valuable stands occur at sites with long historical continuity which contains steno-endemic species and species with isolated occurrences, in many cases probably of relict origin. Indicators of good quality include:
·         Occurrence of endemic or rare species, or species at isolated localities far from their continuous range.
·         No signs of spread of mesophilous species or development of dense grassland.
·         No signs of encroachment of trees and shrubs.
·         In secondary grasslands continuation of grazing by goats or sheep.
Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Achillea ageratifolia, Achillea clypeolata, Achillea coarctata, Achillea nobilis, Acinos arvensis, Agropyron cristatum, Allium albidum, Allium cupani, Allium flavum, Allium moschatum, Allium sphaerocephalon, Alyssum alyssoides, Alyssum montanum subsp. montanum, Alyssum saxatile, Anthemis carpatica, Anthericum ramosum, Anthyllis montanta, Anthyllis vulneraria, Artemisia alba, Asperula capitata, Asperula cynanchica, Asperula purpurea, Asphodeline lutea, Asphodelus albus, Asplenium ruta-muraria, Asplenium septentrionale, Asplenium trichomanes, Aster oleifolius,  Astragalus onobrychis, Astragalus wilmotianus, Bromopsis cappadocica, Bromopsis pannonica, Bromus moesiacus, Bromus squarrosus, Carduus collinus, Carex caryophyllea, Carex humilis, Centaurea atropurpurea, Centaurea reichenbachii, Centaurea triniifolia, Chrysopogon gryllus, Clypeola jonthlaspi, Convolvulus cantabrica, Coronilla scorpioides, Dianthus carthusianorum, Dianthus giganteiformis, Dianthus giganteus, Dianthus gracillis, Dianthus gratianopolitanus, Dianthus spiculifolius, Edraianthus serbicus, Erysimum witmannii, Euphorbia cyparissias, Euphorbia myrsinites, Euphorbia seguieriana, Festuca dalmatica, Festuca pallens s.l., Festuca pseudodalmatica, Festuca stricta, Fumana procumbens, Galium glaucum, Galium lucidum, Genista jaunensis, Globularia bisnagarica, Helianthemum canum, Helianthemum nummularium agg., Helictotrichon decorum, Hornungia petraea, Hyacinthella leucophaea, Hypericum olympicum, Hypericum rumeliacum, Hyssopus officinalis, Inula aschersoniana, Inula oculus-christii, Inula spiraeifolia, Iris pumila, Iris variegata, Jasione montana, Jovibarba heufelii, Jurinea glycacantha, Jurinea mollis, Koeleria macrantha, Koeleria splendens, Leontodon biscutellifolius, Leontodon crispus, Leontodon incanus, Linaria angustissima, Linum tenuifolium, Melica ciliata, Microthlaspi perfoliatum, Minuartia hirsuta, Minuartia verna, Orlaya grandiflora, Ornithogalum nanum, Paeonia tenuifolia,  Paronychia cephalotes, Paronychia kapela, Petrorhagia saxifraga, Peucedanum tauricum, Pilosella officinarum, Poa bulbosa, Poa pannonica, Potentilla argentea agg., Potentilla cinerea, Potentilla incana agg., Psilurus incurvus, Pulsatilla halleri subsp. slavica, Queria hispanica, Rumex acetosella s.l., Sanguisorba minor, Satureja coerulea, Satureja montana, Satureja pilosa, Saxifraga paniculata, Scleranthus perennis, Scorzonera austriaca, Sedum hispanicum, Sedum sexangulare, Selinum silaifolium, Sempervivum marmoreum, Seseli gracile, Seseli leucospermum, Seseli osseum, Seseli pallasii, Seseli rigidum, Sesleria caerulea, Sesleria filiformis, Sesleria heuflerana, Sesleria latifolia, Sesleria rigida, Sesleria sadlerana, Silene armeria, Silene bupleuroides, Silene frivaldskyana, Silene nutans, Stachys recta, Stenbergia colchiciflora, Stipa eriocaulis, Stipa pulcherrima, Teucrium chamaedrys, Teucrium montanum, Teucrium polium, Thesium alpinum, Thymus comosus, Thymus praecox agg., Thymus striatus, Trifolium arvense, Trigonella gladiata, Trigonella monspeliaca, Trinia glauca, Velezia rigida, Veronica spicata, Viola jooi, Xeranthemum annuum, Xeranthemum cylindraceum.
Bryophytes: Ceratodon purpureus, Ditrichum flexicaule, Encalypta streptocarpa, Grimmia sp. pl., Polytrichum piliferum, Syntrichia ruralis agg., Tortella inclinata, Tortella tortuosa, Weissia longifolia.
Lichens: Cladonia convoluta, Cladonia magyarica, Cladonia pyxidata agg.
Fauna
Birds: Anthus campestris, Calandrella brachydactyla, Oenanthe hispanica.
Reptiles: Ablepharus kitaibelli, Elaphe sauromates, Eurotestudo hermannii, Testudo graeca.
Insects: Calliptamus italicus, Oedpioda caerulescens.

Classification:
EUNIS
E1.1 Pioneer and open perennial grasslands of inland sands and rocky terrain
EuroVegChecklist (alliances)
Alysso-Festucion pallentis Moravec in Holub et al. 1967
Asplenio septentrionalis-Festucion pallentis Zólyomi 1936 corr. 1966
Avenulo adsurgentis-Festucion pallentis Mucina in Mucina et Kolbek 1993
Bromo pannonici-Festucion csikhegyensis Zólyomi 1966 corr. Mucina 
Chrysopogono-Festucion dalmaticae Borhidi 1996 
Saturejion montanae Horvat in Horvat et al. 1974
Diantho lumnitzeri-Seslerion (Soó 1971) Chytrý et Mucina in Mucina et Kolbek 1993
Seslerion rigidae Zólyomi 1936
Saturejo-Thymion Micevski 1971 (? inclusion unclear, could also be E1.1j)
Annex 1
6190 Rupicolous pannonic grasslands (Stipo-Festucetalia pallentis)
62A0 Eastern sub-Mediterranean dry grasslands (Scorzoneretalia villosae) p.p. (types on the central and eastern Balkan Peninsula)
Emerald
E1.2 Perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes
MAES-2
Grassland
 IUCN
Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The main occurrences are found in the continental region and the lower parts of the Alpine region of the Balkan and Central Europe.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete for the EU28, but data gaps exist for Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania. The type is also more widespread in Germany, and it also occurs in NE France and S Belgium and Slovenia. The occurrences in Romania are under-, those in Hungaria probably overestimated. Data sources: Art17, EVA.

Comment EU28:
The estimate for Bulgaria might be too high based on an inconsistent interpretation of the habitat type

Comment EU28+:
The estimate for Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia might be too high based on an inconsistent interpretation of the habitat type

Trends in Quantity:
The recent trend in quantity shows a slight decline (-13% and -10% in EU28 and EU28+, respectively, based on 100% of the total area reported). The long-term trend is lower (-4% and -10% in EU28 and EU28+ respectively,  based on 97% of the total area reported). For the future, countries assume developments that range from stable to slight (-moderate) decrease.

Trends in Quality:
Within EU28, 22% of the remaining area are degraded with 41% severity. Within EU28+, 15% of the remaining area are degraded with 48% severity.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Based on the data provided and assuming some occurrences in Ukraine, 37% of the current distribution of the habitat type lies within the EU 28; however, if the questionable figure for the Republic of Macedonia should actually be overestimated, the fraction located in the EU28 could be significantly higher (> 50%))

Pressures and Threats:
As far as the territory of this habitat has been enlarged by clearing of forests and grazing, it suffers from natural succession following abandonment of such traditional pasture systems. Both natural and semi-natural sites are negatively affected by atmogenic nitrogen input, direct destruction in case of quarries and outdoor sports, such as rock climbing.

Conservation and Management:
While natural stands of this habitat do not need special measures, for semi-natural stands the maintenance of the traditional grazing is essential, possibly accompanied by removal of woody encroachment. Additionally, direct destruction of well-developed examples of this habitat type by quarries or by rock climbing and similar outdoor sports should be prevented.

Conservation Status:
6190 ALP FV, CON U1, PAN U1
62A0 ALP U2, BLS U1, CON U2, MED U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Overgrown semi-natural sites possibly can be restored by removal of woody encroachment and re-introduction of a proper grazing system within perhaps 10 years.

Summary:
These grasslands occur on shallow, impoverished soils over both calcareous and siliceous bedrocks, through the lowlands and submontane zone of central and southern Europe.  Essentially forming a natural habitat best developed on steeper ground uncongenial for agriculture, they have been extended where woodland clearance and grazing, particularly by goats, have been part of traditional farming.  Perennial grasses generally dominate, with rich mixtures of associated rosette herbs, mat-formers and geophytes, and towards southern Europe especially, annuals. On south-facing and eroding slopes, the cover can be more open, with a bigger contribution from drought-resistant grasses and woody mats. Though vulnerable to quarrying and atmospheric nitrogen inputs and, in semi-natural stands, to abandonment of grazing, losses in extent seem to be small but there has been a more substantial reduction in quality. Conservation of semi-natural stands depends on appropriate grazing.

References:
Dengler, J., Becker, T., Ruprecht, E., Szabó, A., Becker, U., Beldean, M., Bita-Nicolae, C., Dolnik, C., Goia, I., Peyrat, J., Sutcliffe, L.M.E., Turtureanu, P.D. and UÄŸurlu, E. 2012. Festuco-Brometea communities of the Transylvanian Plateau (Romania) – a preliminary overview on syntaxonomy, ecology, and biodiversity. Tuexenia 32: 319–359.
Dúbravková, D., Chytrý, M., Willner, W., Illyés, E., Janišová, M. and Kallayné Szerényi, J. 2010. Dry grasslands in the Western Carpathians and the northern Pannonian Basin: a numerical classification. Preslia 82: 165–221.
Jandt, U. 1999. Kalkmagerrasen am Südharzrand und im Kyffhäuser – Gliederung im überregionalen Kontext, Verbreitung, Standortverhältnisse und Flora. Dissertationes Botanicae 322: 1–246.
Janišová, M. and Dúbravková, D. 2010. Formalized classification of rocky Pannonian grasslands and dealpine Sesleria-dominated grasslands in Slovakia using a hierarchical expert system. Phytocoenologia 40: 267–291.
Korneck, D. 1974. Xerothermvegetation von Rheinland-Pfalz und Nachbargebieten. Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 7: 1–196.
Pedashenko, H., Apostolova, I., Boch, S., Ganeva, A., Janisová, M., Sopotlieva, D., Todorova, S., Ünal, A., Vassilev, K., Velev, N. and Dengler, J. 2013. Dry grasslands of NW Bulgarian mountains: first insights into diversity, ecology and syntaxonomy. Tuexenia 33: 309–346.
Zólyomi, B. 1966. Neue Klassifikation der Felsenvegetation im Pannonischen Raum und der angrenzenden Gebiete. Botanikai Közlemények 53: 49–54.

Criterion A Text:
The values for Criteria A1 and A3 are calculated from the territorial data sheets, which provided trend data for 10 and 6 countries, for the 50 yr and long-term trend, respectively. The provided data were far too incomplete to allow assessment based on Criteria A2a and A2b.

Criterion B Text:
EOO and AOO are far larger than the thresholds for the Criteria B1 and B2. The habitat type has many occurrences in various countries.

Criterion C/D Text:
The data for Criteria C/D1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets, which provided assessments for 7 countries. No data were available for C/D2 and C/D3. The degradation quality refers to both biotic features and abiotic circumstances.

Synthesis:
The reduction in quantity and in biotic and abiotic quality over the last 50 years are both relatively small and the habitat is widespread in central and eastern Europe. Therefore a Least Concern (LC) status is concluded for this habitat.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
A further split maybe made in a central European and a south-eastern European subhabitat, the first one characterised mainly by Festuca pallens, the second one more diverse and different in species composition.

Contributors:
Type description: M. Chytrý (revised by J. Dengler and R. Tzonev)
Territorial data: C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, M. Chytrý, P. Finck, C. Gussev, M. Janišová, Z. KÄ…cki, V. Matevski, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, D. Paternoster, U. Raths, U. Riecken, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
F2.2b Alpine and subalpine Juniperus scrub

Habitat Description:
Juniperus heaths are found on carbonate as well as on non-carbonate bedrock, from the upper montane to the upper subalpine belt. Rarely we can find these communities in the lower alpine belt of all European mountains, especially those where traditional management such as grazing still continues. It occurs as a primary community on rocks and large boulders or as a secondary vegetation on sites where subalpine forests (dominated by beech or spruce) or dwarf pine krummholz communities are the climax. Sometimes it can even be found in moorland. Dominant species in the habitat are Juniperus communis subsp. alpine (= J. nana, J.sibirica), Juniperus communis subsp. hemispherica and Juniperus sabina.
These shrubs or dwarf shrubs form communities that tolerate extremely low temperatures in areas where deep and long snow cover during the winter serves as a shelter against freezing, desiccation and high solar radiation. If environmental conditions are suitable, communities may also develop on dry and sunny south exposed sites. Juniperus shrubs are able to grow as a procumbent dwarf shrub of only a few centimeters high, which can survive strong winds in the alpine vegetation belt. This plasticity allows these shrubs to form diverse and sometimes also floristically rich stands. The stands in the subalpine vegetation belt are a result of deforestation, subsequent soil erosion and grazing activities. Animals avoid eating the prickly Juniperus heaths and the shrubs are considered as undesired elements on pastures. They often are removed by cutting or burning. As a result of former or recent grazing, Juniperus heathlands form mosaics with related vegetation types such as dwarf shrub dominated by Vaccinium species or/and krummholz communities dominated by Pinus mugo.
Depending on the geological bedrock plant communities are either species poor (siliceous bedrock) or richer (calcareous bedrock). The vegetation is mainly classified within the class Loiseleurio-Vaccinietea that comprises arctic-boreal tundra dwarf shrub and relict (sub)alpine acidophilous heathlands. Based on habitat variability, e.g. mass and length of snow cover and thickness and quality of soil, as well as geographical pattern of distribution, the communities may be divided into more types, like acidophilous, mesophilous communities on deeper soils or dry communities on more shallow, drier soils mostly southward orientated.
Indicators of quality:
Due to the collapse of traditional farming systems, many areas in European mountains have been abandoned and processes of shrub and tree encroachment are going on. Juniperus shrubs play an important role in these processes as a succession stage of formerly deforested zone towards subalpine forests and krummholz. These processes may last long, however, due to severe mountain conditions. Controversially, developing of these Juniperus stands in the past was caused by intensive grazing in montane areas.
The following characteristics may be considered as indicators of good quality:
Characteristic species richness

Dominance of diagnostic Juniperus species

Presence of regular moderate grazing regime

Absence of tree species or dense scrub layer (except for Juniperus species)

Presence of mosaics with other scrub and grassland types

Absence of nutrient-demanding species.


Characteristic species:
Flora:
Vascular plants: Achillea distans, Arctostaphyllos uva-ursi, Avenulla versicolor, Bruckenthalia spiculifolia, Calamagrostis villosa, Calluna vulgaris, Campanula patula subsp. abietina, C. alpina, Carex sempervirens, Cotoneaster integerimmus, Cystus galanoi, Daphne blagayana, Daphne oleoides, Deschampsia flexuosa, Festuca supina, Genista versicolor, Gentiana acaulis, Hieracium intybaceaum, H. pannosum, Hypericum maculatum, H. richerii, Juniperus communis subsp. alpina, Juniperus communis subsp. hemispherica, Juniperus sabina, Nardus stricta, Oxalis acetosella, Phyteuma betonicifolium, P. persicifolium, Picea abies, Pinus mugo, Poa chaixii, Primula veris, Prunus prostrata, Pulsatilla vernalis, Pulsatilla alpina s.l., Rhododendron ferrugineum, R. hirsutum, R. myrtifolium, Rubus idaeus, Sempervivum montanum, S. wulfenii, Senecio abrotanifolius, S. nemorensis agg., Sesleria coerulescens, S. comosa, Trifolium alpinum, Vaccinium gaultherioides, V. myrtillus, V. vitis-idea.
Mosses and lichens: Alectoria ochroleuca, Cetraria islandica, Cladonia arbuscula, C. pyxidata, C. rangiferina, Dicranum scoparium, Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi, Polytrichum alpinum, P. strictum, Sphagnum capillifolium.

Classification:
EUNIS:
F2.2 Alpine and subalpine shrub
EuroVegChecklist:
Juniperion nanae Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et al. 1939
Aconito nasuti–Juniperion nanae Onipchenko 2002
Pino sylvestris-Juniperion sabinae Rivas Goday in Rivas Goday et Borja 1961
Genisto versicoloris-Juniperion hemisphaericae Rivas-Mart. et J.A. Molina in Rivas-Mart., Fernández-González et Loidi 1999
Pruno prostratae-Juniperion sabinae Rivas-Mart. et J.A. Molina in Rivas-Mart., Fernández-González et Loidi 1999
Daphno oleoidis-Juniperion alpinae Stanisci 1997
Junipero-Bruckenthalion (Horvat 1949) BoÅŸcaiu 1971
Annex 1:
4060 Alpine and Boreal heaths
Emerald:
F2.26 Bruckenthalia heaths
MAES-2:
Heathland and shrub
IUCN:
3.3. Boreal shrub
3.4 Temperate shrub

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Juniperus nana dominated vegetation is typical high-altitudinal vegetation the mountain massifs of temperate Europe: on Iberian Peninsula, Massive Central, Alps, Carpathians and Balkan Peninsula.

Map Description:
Map is rather complete, with some possible gaps in the Balkan and unclear boundaries to F3.1a. Data: Art17, EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
The surface of these communities is increasing because of the abandonment of traditional grazing in the mountains. We have detected an increase of surfaces in EU28 of 10.8% and 11.8% in EU28+, respectively. Forecasts regarding future trends are various: on one hand the abandonment of grazing is likely to continue and this will give space to Juniperus scrub to extend, but on the other hand we can expect a decrease in area of the habitat or its shift in higher elevations due to global warming.

Trends in Quality:
The quality of this habitat is adequate. Only 5.7% of the total surface have been degraded slightly to moderately in EU28+ and 5.15% in EU28, respectively. With changes in traditional agricultural practices, Juniperus plays an importation role in reforestation. This process can be rather long due to harsh conditions and in initial stages, the floristic composition is not adequate. On the other side, these initial Juniper stands have often been destroyed (cut or burnt) because Juniper is often considered as an undesired element of pastures.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Juniperus nana is an amphiboreal-circumboreal arctic-alpine species. It is often an element of heathland communities, but in northern Europe, it does not form communities. In Europe, 89.7% of the surface are within EU28. Similar communities appear on Caucasus, so we can estimate that about 80% of the overall surface are within EU28+.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a wide range of distribution from Iberian Peninsula over the European mountain chains to the Balkan Peninsula.

Justification of Restricted Area:
They appear in all mountains in the temperate parts of Europe.

Pressures and Threats:
The habitat is expanding due to the abandonment of traditional agriculture (grazing). It is threatened due to intensive grazing, cutting or burning of shrub (undesired on pastures), construction of buildings and paths, global warming and afforestation (especially in the montane and subalpine zone).

Conservation and Management:
Though these habitats don't require special treatment, conservation problems derive from the abandonment of grazing and afforestation. As Juniperus heaths are successional stages in montane and subalpine vegetation belts, those will disappear in the further stages of reforestation. Minor conservation issues are the cutting of the scrub, construction of paths, roads (also for motorcycles), ski resorts and building in the mountain areas. The most propitious treatment is extensive grazing.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
4060: ALP FV, ATL U2, BOR U1, CON FV, MAC FV, MED XX

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The process of recovery is rather slow in high mountain regions. We estimate that the stands can recover within 10 years through intervention and within 20-30 years naturally (assuming that appropriate sources of propagules are in the landscape).

Summary:
Alpine and subalpine Juniper scrub occurs on high mountains in temperate Europe over a variety of bedrock types. The dominant junipers form dense stands of varying height depending on wind exposure and winter snow accummulation which protects from cold, desiccation and high solar radiation. More open stands can have a rich associated flora of graminoids, herbs and cryptogams, often forming a scrub/grassland mosaic. The appearance, persistence and loss of juniper often depends on the intensity of grazing and clerarance of trees from pasture, so this has been much affected by changes in mountain pastoralism. Abandonment, particularly at lower altitudes, allows succession to forest. Other threats are tourist infrastructure and activities as well as global warming, that may cause the altitudinal shift of the habitat. For now, the best conservation is traditional pastoralism.

References:
Brullo, S., Giusso del Galdo, G. and Guarino, R. (2001). The orophilous communities of the Pinoâ€Juniperetea class in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean area. Feddes Repertorium 112(3â€4): 261-308.
Coldea, G. (1991). Prodrome des associations végétales des Carpates du Sud-Est (Carpates Roumaines). Doc. Phytosoc., N. S. 13: 317-539.
Grabherr, G. (1993). Loiselurio-Vaccinietea. In: Grabherr, G. and Mucina, L. Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs. Teil II – Natürliche waldfreie Vegetation, Gustav Fischer, Jena, pp. 447-467.
Šibík, J., Kliment, J., Jarolímek, I. and Dúbravcová, Z. (2007). Loiseleurio-Vaccinietea Eggler ex Schubert 1960. In Kliment, J. and ValachoviÄ, M. (eds) Rastlinné spoloÄenstvá Slovenska. 4. Vysokohorská vegetácia. Veda, Bratislava, p. 283–317.
Surina, B. (2013). Heaths with dwarf ericaceous shrubs and Alpine juniper (Juniperus alpina) in the Dinaric Alps: A nomenclatorial and synsystematic re-appraisal. Acta Botanica Croatica 72(1): 113-132.

Criterion A Text:
The figures for A1 have been calculated from the territorial data sheet. The habitat type shows an increase in area over the past 50 years due to abandonment of grazing. Grazing does not allow Juniper to spread, at the same time individual scrubs have been burnt, as they are considered as undesired on pastures. The calculated figures for A1 result in the category Least concern.

Criterion B Text:
Both the EOO and AOO are larger than the thresholds for criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The values for C/D1 have been calculated from the territorial data sheets. The calculated figures result in the category Least concern (LC). The stands can be degraded due to human intervention (grazing, burning and urbanization). At the same time, the habitats that appear in the successional stage show rather impoverished floristic composition; they will need a certain amount of time to gain its typical appearance.

Synthesis:
We consider this habitat least concerned. The habitat is widely spread in the territory of the EU. In the past 50 years, an increase in area of about 10% has been observed and only 5% are slightly degraded. Though the estimated future trend indicates a relatively good prospect, we have to take some threats into consideration, like global warming, afforestation and tourism. Appropriate monitoring of this habitat type is recommended.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat appears in the mountains of the temperate parts of Europe. The dominant species of temperate heaths also appear as elements of heaths in the northern and northwestern parts of Europe but don't dominate the habitats there. The relat

Contributors:
Habitat definition: A. ÄŒarni & J. Šibík
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, A.B.G. Averis, A.M. Averis, S. Bagella, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, J. A. Campos, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, R. Delarze, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, N. Juvan, T. Kontula, C. Marcenò, V. Matevski, A. Mikolajczak, F. Millaku, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, D. Paternoster, P. Perrin, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Rusakova, Å½. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, D. Vicianii
Working Group Heathland & scrub: M. Aronsson, F. Bioret, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Capello, P. Dimopoulos, J. Janssen, J. Loidiâ€‹


Habitat Type Name:
C2.2b Permanent non-tidal, fast, turbulent watercourse of plains and montane regions with Ranunculus spp.

Habitat Description:
The habitat includes river stretches with a stony, gravelly or shingly river bed with an average flow velocity over 0.2 m/sec. Main physical differences between this habitat type and C2.3 (Permanent non-tidal, smooth-flowing watercourses) are the higher flow velocity and the bigger grain size of the sediments. These two habitats, as well as the  habitat C2.2a (Permanent non-tidal, fast, turbulent watercourses of montane to alpine regions with moss communities) may be related as segments of the same stream or river. These stretches of rivers are usually natural and unaltered. The natural hydrological regime is variable, alternating periods of low water level (but never completely dry) and floods. This regime promotes a cyclic development of the vegetation, the coexistence of various microhabitats, the self-purification due to the high oxygen level. This habitat is characterized by patches of stone beds devoid of any plant species, patches of aquatic mosses attached to stones and patches of submerged rooting macrophytes. Characteristic submerged macrophytes are Potamogeton alpinus, P. polygonifolius, Ranunculus fluitans, and Callitriche hamulata. Also Potamogeton pectinatus occurs in this habitat with long and narrow leaves floating in the water stream, but might be considered as a species that characterizes less optimal circumstances. Once the water become deepand slowly flowing, Nuphar lutea and other species of the genus Potamogeton become more characteristic. Emergent amphibian plants such as Berula erecta, Apium nodiflorum, Hippuris vulgaris, Butomus umbellatus, Schoenoplectus lacustris, Sagittaria sagittifolia and Sparganium emersum can also develop in more shallow and illuminated parts of this habitat. Due to the strong current these emergent plants usually develop in this habitat their submerged growth forms with leaves adapted to the water movement. Usually, vegetation cover of the habitat does not exceed 30% of the total area of a river stretch. The vegetation can include also species with a wide abiotic range such as Groenlandia densa, Zannichellia palustris, Myriophyllum spicatum, Nuphar lutea. Species variation is dependent on flow velocity, water depth, sediment type, shading and nutrient richness. Surface water is speedily flowing and rich in oxygen. These are important favorable circumstances for benthonic macroinvertebrates and fish communities.
Indicators of good quality:
Flow velocity exceeds 0.2 m/sec
Riverbed is mainly stony, pebbly or gravelly, with few finer sediments (sand)
No accumulation of fine (silt and clay) and organic sediments
Hydrological regime is natural as well as morphology is unaltered
No or limited occurrence of exotic species
Limited development of emergent species
No or limited formation of floating mats of organic residuals.

Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Ranunculus aquatilis, R. circinatus, R. trichophyllus, R. fluitans, R. peltatus, R. penicillatus subsp. penicillatus, R. penicillatus subsp. pseudofluitans, Berula erecta, Butomus umbellatus, Callitriche cophocarpa, C. hamulata, Glyceria fluitans, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Potamogeton alpinus, P. berchtoldii, P. coloratus, P. gramineus, P. perfoliatus, P. natans, P. nodosus, P. polygonifolius, Rorippa amphibia, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Schoenoplectus lacustris, Sparganium angustifolium, S. emersum, S. erectum, Veronica beccabunga, V. anagallis-aquatica.
Bryophytes: Fontinalis antipyretica, F. dalecarlica, Hygrohypnum spp., Rhynchostegium ripariodes, Scapania undulata, Sphagnum denticulatum.
Algae: Batrachospermum spp., Cladophora spp., Hildenbrandia rivularis, Thorea ramosissima, Chantransia sp., Lemanea spp., Diatoma spp., Hydrurus foetidus, Bangia atropurpurea, Diatoma spp., Gomphonema spp., Chamaesiphon spp., Navicula spp., Nitzschia palea, Cocconeis spp., Spirogyra spp., Mougeotia spp., Zygnema spp., Oocardium stratum, Vaucheria spp., Audouinella hermannii, Heribaudiella fluviatilis, Surirella ovata, Closterium leibleinii, Staurastrum punctulatum.
Lichens: Dermatocarpon spp., Verrucaria spp., Porina clorotica.
Macroinvertebrates: Turbellaria, Hirudinea, Mollusca (e.g. Ancylus fluviatilis, Unio crassus, Margaritifera margaritifera, Theodoxus fluviatilis,), Crustacea (e.g. Astacus astacus, Austropotamobius pallipes, Potamon fluviatile, Copepoda, Gammarus spp., Echinogammarus spp.); extremely developed in this habitat are aquatic insects of the groups Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Diptera. 
Vertebrates: fish: Lampetra fluviatilis, L. planeri, Coregonus lavaretus, Cottus gobio, Salmo trutta, S. salar, Thymallus thymallus, Aspius aspius, Esox lucius, Perca fluviatilis, Leuciscus spp., Phoxinus phoxinus, Barbus spp.; amphibians: Rana spp., Salamandrina terdigitata, Reptiles: Natrix spp.; mammals: Castor fiber, Lutra lutra, Mustela lutreola; birds: Cinclus cinclus.

Classification:
EUNIS:
C2.2 Permanent non-tidal, fast, turbulent watercourses
EuroVegChecklist:
Batrachion fluitantis Neuhäusl 1959
Annex 1:
3260 Water courses of plain to montane levels with the Ranunculion fluitantis
32A0 Tufa cascades of karstic rivers of the Dinaric Alps
Emerald:
C2.18 Acid oligotrophic vegetation of spring brooks
C2.1A Mesotrophic vegetation of spring brooks
C2.1B Eutrophic vegetation of spring brooks
C2.25 Acid oligotrophic vegetation of fast flowing streams
C2.26 Lime rich oligotrophic vegetation of fast flowing streams
C2.27 Mesotrophic vegetation of fast flowing streams
C2.28 Eutrophic vegetation of fast flowing streams
MAES-2:
Freshwater habitat, rivers and lakes, inland surface water (water courses and bodies)
IUCN:
5.1. Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks [includes waterfalls]
Water Framework Directive:
R-C3 (Siliceous mountain brooks)
R-E4 (Upland streams)

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat is widespread within the Eurosiberian territories in differents regions.

Trends in Quantity:
Present past trend in quantity over the past 50 years is a reduction about 44% in both EU 28 and EU 28+ countries. The trends have been calculated from the reported trends by twelve countries (Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Croatia, Hungary, Italy, Ireland, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Bosnia and Herzegovina). This trend is higher to 50% when the long historical data are taken into account for the countries that provided this data (Austria, Germany and Hungary). The estimated future trend is to decrease in most of the eleven countries, which provided this data.

Trends in Quality:
The extent of degradation is 63% and the severity of degradation is 49 for both EU 28 and EU 28+. The trends have been calculated from the reported trends in quality (extent and severity) by 9 countries (Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Finland, Netherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain).

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
It is estimated in one fifth the distribution of the habitat that lies within EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a wide range, covering large parts of the Eurosiberian region although it has undergone an important declining during the last 50 years in the European Union.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat may occur localized in segments but it can also form larger streches of streams or rivers.

Pressures and Threats:
The modification of the natural hydrographic conditions and the pollution to surface-and groundwaters are the most significant and extended threats affecting the habitat in the EU. Human induced changes in hydraulic conditions include different modifications such as: water reservoir constructions, removal of sediments, modification of structures of water courses, banks protection, dredging and gravel mining. Other cited preasures for this habitat type are related to: the occurence of invasive non-native species, fishing, biological resources uses, and forest plantation on river banks.

Conservation and Management:
For conservation and management of this habitat type the natural hydrological regime must be maintained including flow velocity, riverbed composition of coarser substrates without accumulation of finer and organic sediments. Water quality must be preserved by controlling and limiting water pollution. Fishing and forest plantation on river banks must be managed. The crops should be maintained at a distance from the river banks in order to maintain a filter vegetation belt against pollutants. No or limited occurrence of exotic species should be maintained.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
3260: ALP U1, ATL U2, BLS U1, BOR U2, CON U1, MED U2, PAN U1, STE FV
32A0: no data reported yet

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
When severly damaged, the specific resources and actions required to recover the habitat should be based on restoring of both the hydrological regime and water quality. If the substrate composition has been altered, it should be reconstructed.

Summary:
The habitat includes river stretches with a stoney, gravelly or shingly river bed with an average fast but variable flow, and alternating periods of low water level and floods. This regime promotes a cyclic development of the vegetation, the coexistence of various microhabitats and self-purification due to the high oxygen level. It occurs throughout Europe though is scarcer towards the south. Typically there are patches of bare stoney bed, of aquatic mosses attached to stones and of submerged rooting macrophytes. Emergents and amphibious plants occur in shallow and periodically emergent margins. Human-induced changes in the hydrology and water pollution are the main threats. The habitat needs strict protection mostly related to maintain natural hydrological conditions, vigilance of water quality, and control of sand and gravel extraction, forest plantation and fishing. Restoration of artificialized watercourses, recovery of degraded water quality and the management of urban and industrial waste is needed.

References:
AuniÅ†š, A. (ed) et al., 2013. European Union. Protected habitats in Latvia. Interpretation manual, 2nd edition. p. 32-35.
Benavent-González, A., Lumbreras, A. and Molina, J.A. 2014. Plant communities as a tool for setting priorities in biodiversity conservation: a novel approach to Iberian aquatic vegetation. Biodiversity and Conservation 23: 2135-2154.
Berg, C., Dengler, J., Abdank, A. and Isermann, M. 2004. De Pflanzengesellschaften Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns un ihre Gefährdung. Textband. 606 pages. Landesamt für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Geologie Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Weissdorn-Verlag Jena. p. 86-92.
Gaudillat, V., Haury, J., Barbier, B. and Peschadour, F. (coord.) 2002. Cahiers d’habitats – Tome 3 – Habitats humides. La Documentation française, Paris, 457 pp.
Lumbreras, A., Pardo, C. and Molina, J.A.  2013. Bioindicator role of aquatic Ranunculus in Mediterranean freshwater habitats. Aquatic Conserv: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 23: 582–593.
Mony, C., Mony, J.F. and Thiébaut, G. 2006. Floristic and ecological diversity of Ranunculus aquatic habitats in the sub-Atlantic range, implications for conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 15: 3383–3400.

Criterion A Text:
Values for A1 were calculated from territorial data sheets. Information is based on 14 (EU 28) and 1 (EU 28+) countries. Most of the countries reported a decreasing trend in the present past quantity which is overall of 45% from EU 28 and 44% from EU 28+. The highest decreasing trends for this habitat were reported from central European countries (Netherlands 75%, Germany 50-80%, Hungary 40-80%) during the last 55 to 65 years. A decreasing long historical trend is indicated for most of the seven countries which reported this information, but a calculation was not possible due to the lack of quantitative data.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO and AOO are far beyond the thresholds for criteria under B, and therefore other subcriteria for B are not relevant for the conclusion. The havitat is Least Concern according this criterion.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity are the weighted average calculated from reported data from nine EU 28 countries. There is an overall decrease in quality affecting 63% of the surface with an overall severity of 49. The involved countries could not provide any information on long historical or future trends in quality (CD2, CD3, C2, C3, and D2). The changes in quality are both abiotic (waste, trampling) and biotic (invasive species, changes in species composition), so C/D1 has not been split into C1 and D1. Applying the C/D1 criterion the habitat shows a decline close to intermediate threshold affecting more than 50% of the extent, which leads to a Near Threatened status but very close (for only 1 point) to Vulnerable.

Criterion E Text:
There is no quantitative data available to estimates the probability of collapse of this habitat type.

Synthesis:
The habitat is Vulnerable (VU) because of a recent decrease in quantity of 44%. Besides, a substantial reduction in quality occurred, with values at the boundary between Near Threatened and Vulnerable (63% of the extent, 49% severity).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
This habitat type could be locally more threatened in the most arid part of Europe and in regions where it is not abundant due to geomorphological conditions.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, G. Arts, S. Assini, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Brophy, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, J.M. Couvreur, R. Delarze, L. Denys, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, P. Ivanov, N. Juvan, G. Király, T. Kontula, A. Leyssen, A. Lumbreras, C. Marcenò, A. Mikolajczak, J.A. Molina, D. Paelinckx, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, C. Pinto-Cruz, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, J. Šibík,   Z. Škvorc,  A. Ssymank, V. Stupar, K. Šumberová, D. Viciani
Working Group Freshwater Habitats: G. Arts, F. Landucci, J.A. Molina, B. Poulin, H. Toivonen


Habitat Description:
This habitat type includes all kinds of boreal and arctic unvegetated accumulations of siliceous boulders, stones or gravel, except for the littoral habitats. They form a base-poor substrate that harbours acidophilous plant communities. The habitat type is heterogeneous in regard to its biota, as it extends from the small blockfields of the southern boreal taiga to the highlands of Iceland. Screes and blockfields are produced by various geological processes. Scree usually refers to a collection of broken rock fragments on slopes or under cliffs produced by slope processes (also called talus formations). Screes often show a sorting of rock fragments. The largest blocks falling off from cliff faces roll down the furthest, whereas the finest material accumulates in the uppermost part of the slope. Other boulder and gravel fields originate from glacial deposition, frost action breaking rock outcrops in situ, or e.g. frost heaving from moraine. Rock glaciers and ice-dominated moraines are distinguished as a separate habitat H4.3, however. Yet another type of boulder fields is related to ancient beach deposits constituted by former coastal constructional processes. Sparsely vegetated screes and block and gravel fields are distributed across the whole boreal and arctic region but with varying abundance. The largest screes are found in Iceland (incl. gravel fields) and along the Scandinavian Mountain range, where they reach mid- or high-alpine levels. Large stable blockfields cover mountaintops in northern Fennoscandia and some quite large ancient beach deposits encircle high hills along the ancient coasts of the Baltic Sea. The vegetation of scree slopes represents a complex that covers many vegetation types from forests at the foot of the slopes to scrubs and sparsely vegetated unstable screes in the upper parts of formations. The forest and scrub types are not included in the habitat described here, but included under G- and F-types, respectively. More or less flat boreal blockfields may be also covered by trees or sometimes by scrubs, but also in this case, the habitat type in question only refers to open areas that do not have a tree or scrub layer. In such screes, the most characteristic assemblages of vascular plants are found in unstable patches, where also weak competitors can persist. In other blockfields, the role of vascular plants is small. The vegetation typically consists of lichens and bryophytes with different growth forms dominating different microhabitats, e.g. crustose and foliose lichens and small cushion-forming bryophytes on the sides of boulders, and fruticose lichens and mat-forming bryophytes in the hollows between blocks. Where vascular plants find enough soil between blocks, they form sparse vegetation. Transitions may occur towards grasslands or heathlands while near mountain summits transitions towards fjell-fields (H5.1) may be found. Probably the most important steering factor in screes and blockfields is a natural or semi-natural disturbance regime, which maintains characteristic species assemblages. In the arctic, gravel and blockfields are kept open just by the harsh climate, but in the boreal zone slow overgrowth has been observed in some regions. In screes, the disturbance regime is characterized by the continuum of periodic rockfall, instability of the substrate, and in some regions also by the long tradition of grazing. In some cases, grazing or, e.g., hiking or mountaineering activities may cause additional erosion in the habitat to such an extent that it disturbs the formation of typical vegetation. In forested areas, especially small blockfields tend to become more and more vegetated, starting gradually from the margins. In these habitats, the characteristic scarce vegetation may be in the long run dependent on regular forest fires.
Indicators of good quality:
natural or seminatural disturbance regime, with a continuum of periodic rockfall and instability of the substrate or (in some cases) forest fires
no or little succession towards scrub and forest
continuation of traditional grazing (where relevant)
no disturbance (for example by hiking, grazing, etc.)
diversity of lichen, moss, and vascular plant species

Characteristic species:
Flora: Majority of the listed species are relevant for the Scandinavian scree habitats, where they represent floral elements from the southern Boreal region to mid- or high alpine levels. Species relevant also or especially for boreal blockfields are indicated with*, those relevant especially for Icelandic screes and gravel fields with (I) and those mainly for Svalbard with (S).
Vascular plants: Alchemilla alpina (I), Arabis alpina (I), A. glabra, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi*, Arenaria norvegica (I, common and not restricted to particularly baserich screes in Iceland), Armeria maritima (I), Calamagrostis epigejos, Campanula rotundifolia, Cardaminopsis petraea, Carex bigelowii (I), C. capillaris (I), C. rupestris, Cerastium alpinum coll., C. arcticum (S), C. regelii (S), Cryptogramma crispa*, Cystopteris fragilis*, Deschampsia alpina, D. flexuosa, Draba daurica, D. incana, D. norvegica, Dryas octopetala (I, not restricted to particularly baserich screes in Iceland), Dryopteris carthusiana*, Empetrum nigrum*, Epilobium angustifolium, E. collinum, E. latifolium (I), Equisetum variegatum (I), Erigeron acer ssp. politus, Erysimum strictum,  Festuca ovina, F. rubra, F. vivipara, Galium normanii (I), G. verum, Gentiana nivalis (I), Gymnocarpium dryopteris*, Hieracium alpinum (I), Huperzia selago, Juncus trifidus, Juniperus communis, Lotus corniculatus, Luzula arcuata, L. spicata, Minuartia biflora, M. rubella (I), M. stricta (I), Oxyria digyna, Papaver radicatum coll. (I, S), Poa alpina, P. glauca, P. nemoralis, Polygonatum odoratum, Polypodium vulgare*, Polystichum lonchitis, Potentilla crantzii, P. robbinsiana ssp. hypacrtica (S), P. nivea, Ranunculus glacialis, R. sulphureus (S), Rhodiola rosea, Rosa villosa, Rubus idaeus, R. saxatilis, Salix herbacea, S. starkeana, Saxifraga aizoides (I), S. cernua (S), S. groenlandica (S), S. nivalis, S. oppositifolia, Sedum annuum, S. telephium, Silene acaulis, S. uniflora (I), Solidago virgaurea, Thalictrum alpinum, Thymus praecox ssp. arcticus (I), Tofieldia pusilla (I), Trisetum spicatum, Vaccinium myrtillus*, V. vitis-idaea*, V. uliginosum*, Verbascum nigrum, Verbascum thapsus, Veronica fruticans, Vicia sylvatica, Viola canina ssp. montana, V. tricolor, Viscaria alpina, V. vulgaris, Woodsia ilvensis*
Mosses: Andraea rupestris, Dicranum scoparium, Pleurozium schreberi, Ptilidium ciliare, Polytrichum spp., Racomitrium lanuginosum, R. microcarpon, Tetralophozia setiformis
Lichens: Arctoparmelia spp. (especially A. centrifuga), Brodoa intestiniformis, Cetraria spp., Cetrariella commixta, Chrysothrix chlorina, Cladina spp., Cladonia spp. Diploschistes scriposus, Lecanora spp., Lecidea sensu lato, Melanelia spp., Ophioparma ventosa, Parmelia saxatilis, Porpidia spp., Protoparmelia badia, Rhizocarpon spp., Stereocaulon spp., Umbilicaria spp.

Classification:
EUNIS:
H2.1 Cold siliceous screes
EuroVeg Checklist:
Allosuro-Athyrion alpestris Nordhagen 1943
Antitrichio-Rhodiolion roseae HadaÄ 1971
Andreaeion petrophilae Šmarda 1944
Racomitrion lanuginosi von Krusenstjerna 1945
Umbilicarion cylindricae Frey 1933
Rhizocarpion alpicolae Frey ex Klement 1955
Annex 1:
8110 Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels
Emerald:
H2.1 Cold siliceous screes
MAES-2:
Sparsely or unvegetated land
IUCN:
6 Rocky areas

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type occurs in the Boreal and Arctic zone only.

Map Description:
The map is rather incomplete, especially for Svalbard and Iceland. Data sources: Art17, EVA, GBIF.

Trends in Quantity:
Both the historical trend as well as the trend over the last 50 years is unknown due to a lack of data, but the characteristics of the habitat type are supposed to be in a stable status.

Trends in Quality:
The trend in quality over the last 50 years is probably stable. According to Finnish experts, the pressures affecting boulder fields have been low, but due to a lack of data, the calculation of trends in quality is not possible.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Within the EU28+, the habitat type occurs in Finland, Sweden, Iceland, and Norway. Outside the EU28+, it is found in (boreal and subarctic) Russia and on Greenland.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is widespread in the Arctic. The EOO is much higher than 50.000 km². There is no information available about a recent significant decrease.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat occupies large areas across the Arctic and Boreal zone.

Pressures and Threats:
There are no significant pressures. Potential threats are: (1) the absence of a natural or semi-natural disturbance regime, which maintains characteristic species assemblages, (2) climate changes (in the Arctic, gravel and block fields are kept open just by the harsh climate, but in the Boreal zone, slow overgrowth has been observed in some regions), (3) in some regions extensive grazing, or (4) hiking or mountaineering activities, and (5) in forested areas, especially small blockfields tend to become more and more vegetated, starting gradually from the margins. In the long run, the characteristic scarce vegetation of these habitats may be dependent on regular forest fires.

Conservation and Management:
The most important steering factor in Boreal and Arctic siliceous screes and block fields is a natural or semi-natural disturbance regime, which maintains characteristic species assemblages. Due to the necessity of natural processes, only the establishment of protected areas is an optimal regime for environmental policy and conservation.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The recovery of the habitat is possible but requires the existence of natural processes over a long time-period.

Summary:
The habitat comprises Boreal and Arctic unvegetated siliceous boulders, stones or gravel screes occurring over base-poor substrates that harbour acidophilous plant communities. They are of diverse origin, uneven distribution through the region and often subject to continuing natural disturbance through rock falls, freeze-thaw or coastal erosion and deposition. The vegetation typically consists of lichens and bryophytes with different growth forms dominating different microhabitats, e.g. crustose and foliose lichens and small-cushion forming bryophytes on the sides of boulders, and fruticose lichens and mat forming bryophytes in the hollows between blocks. Where vascular plants find enough soil between blocks, they contribute a sparse cover. Potential threats are mainly related to climate change, touristic activities and the absence of a proper disturbance regime. Ensuring the latter is the major goal with regards to the conservation of this habitat.

References:
Norokorpi, Y., Eeronheimo, H., Eurola, S., Heikkinen, R., Johansson, P., Kumpula, J., Mäkelä, K., Neuvonen, S., Sihvo, J., Tynys, S. and Virtanen, R. 2008. Tunturit Suomen luontotyyppien uhanalaisuus (Assessment of Threatened Habitat Types in Finland), pp. 467-541. In: Raunio, A., Schulman, A. and Kontula, T. eds. Suomen luontotyyppien uhanalaisuus: Osa 2: Luontotyyppien kuvaukset. Suomen ympäristökeskus, Helsink,Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinky, 572 p.
Påhlson, L. (ed.) 1998. Vegetationstyper in Norden. Nordisk Ministerråd, København. 627 p.
ValachoviÄ, M., Dierssen, K., Dimopoulos, P., HadaÄ, E., Loidi, J., Mucina, L., Rossi, G., Valle Tendero, F. and Tomaselli, M. 1997. The vegetation on screes - survey of higher syntaxa in Europe. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 32: 173-192.

Criterion A Text:
Only data from Finland were available for the estimation of current, past and future trends in quantity.

Criterion B Text:
EOO, AOO and number of lcoations are much larger than the thresholds for criteria B.

Criterion C/D Text:
Only limited data for the estimation of current, past and future trends in quality were available (only from Finland). However, there is no direct or indirect evidence or suspicions about significant quantitative changes in the habitat within the last 50 years. A small proportion of habitat type occurrences has been destroyed in various construction projects and changed into woodland or scrub habitat types through overgrowth. Human-induced overgrowth may have caused also some changes in the vegetation and species composition (especially in the southern part of the boreal zone) but all in all qualitative changes are regarded slight, leading to the same category (Least Concern) under criterion C/D1.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assessed as Least Concern (LC) under criterion A1 in both EU28 and EU28+. There is no direct or indirect evidence or suspicions about significant quantitative changes in the habitat within the last 50 years. A small proportion of habitat type occurrences has been destroyed in various construction projects and changed into woodland or scrub habitat types through overgrowth. Human-induced overgrowth may have caused also some changes in the vegetation and species composition (especially in the southern part of the boreal zone) but all in all qualitative changes are regarded slight, leading to the same category (Least Concern) under criterion C/D1. It should be noticed that actual data about the quantity and quality of the habitat was received only from Finland, and the overall status was inferred from that data and from general knowledge about potential threats within the boreal zone.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
In Finland, the habitat type partly corresponds to 6.5 Scree (with all its subtypes), 8.9.5 Mountain oligotrophic and mesotrophic boulder fields and 8.10.1 Oligotrophic and mesotrophic talus formations. The majority of the mentioned partly correspondin

Contributors:
Habitat definition: T. Kontula
Territorial data: T. Kontula
Working Group Sparsely Vegetated Habitats: F. Essl, G. Giusso del Galdo, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paternoster, M. ValachoviÄ, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Type Name:
G3.1c Mediterranean mountain Abies woodland

Habitat Description:
These are xerophytic coniferous woodlands of shallow, drought-prone soils within the lower to mid-altitudinal belts of the Mediterranean climatic zone, where firs of very limited, sometimes relictual, distribution are able to maintain a competitive advantage against other trees and dominate in woodlands of highly distinctive character.  
Abies pinsapo persists in three small enclaves in southern Andalusia on relatively humid northerly slopes between 1000 and 1800 m, stands on limestone having Quercus ilex and Q. faginea in the canopy and a sparse shrub layer with Berberis vulgaris subsp. australis, Rosa micrantha, Juniperus oxycedrus and Ulex baeticus.  Some stands on limestone have Paeonia broteroi and  P. coriacea as distinctive field layer elements, others on serpentine are distinguished by Bunium alpinum subsp. macuca.  
On the southern Greek mainland and some Ionian and Aegean islands A. cephalonica dominates, often growing tall and dense, sometimes with Pinus nigra intermixed. Usually only in gullies away from dense shading does the field layer attain any richness with such distinctive species as Geocaryum parnassicum, Lilium heldreichii, Cardamine graeca, Neotinea maculata, Helictotrichon convolutum, Iris unguicularis and Carex macrolepis.  
On a fog-bound slope in the Madonie mountains of Sicily a relict population of Abies nebrodensis survives on embryonic quartzite soils with an understorey of Juniperus hemisphaerica, occasional Acer pseudoplatanus and Sorbus graeca and a field layer with Silene sicula, Plantago humilis, Galium venustum and Armeria nebrodensis.    
Characteristic species                                                                                                                            
As listed above for the different regional examples.
Indicators of quality:
·    Distinctive relationship with extreme topography and associated Mediterranean flora.
·    Absence of signs of exploitation by felling.
·    Natural composition of canopy.
·    Structural diversity/ complexity with (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers.
·    Typical flora and fauna composition of the region.
·    Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying or standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi.
·    Presence of natural disturbance such as treefall openings with natural regeneration.
·    Long historical continuity (ancient woodland) with high species diversity.
·    Survival of larger stands of forest without anthropogenic fragmentation and isolation (to support fauna which need large undisturbed forests).
·    Absence of non-native species in all layers (flora & fauna).
·    No man-induced very high population levels of ungulates.
Characteristic species:
Abies alba ssp. apennina, Abies borisii-regis, Abies cephalonica, Abies nebrodensis, Abies pinsapo

Classification:
EUNIS:
G3.1 Abies and Picea woodland 
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
Abietion cephalonicae Horvat et al. 1974
Paeonio broteroi-Abietion pinsapo (Rivas-Mart. 1987) Rivas-Mart. et al. 2002
Berberido aetnensis-Pinion laricionis (S. Brullo et al. 2001) Mucina et Theurillat nom.nov.hoc.loco.
Geranio striati-Fagion Gentile 1970
Annex 1:
9510* Southern Apennine Abies alba forests
9520 Abies pinsapo forests
Emerald:
G3.15 Southern Apennine Abies alba forests
G3.19 Abies pinsapo forests
MAES:
Woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.4 Temperate Forest
EFT:
10.6 Mediterranean and Anatolian fir forest
EVM:
K2 Meso- and supra-Mediterranean fir forests (Abies pinsapo, A. cephalonica)

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Distinctive relationship with extreme topography and associated Mediterranean flora. This group is composed of relictual Mediterranean forest types associated with Mediterranean mountains.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete. Data sources: EVA, Art17, BOHN.

Comment EU28:
EOO and AOO need to be confirmed after correction of map.

Trends in Quantity:
The overall trend in quantity is a slight reduction. This varies among countries and subtypes (+/-5%). There is not information to assess the trends from historic times, neither the future projections.

Trends in Quality:
The overall trend in qualiity for the 3 countries is stable. This situation varies among countries and subtypes. For example in Spain, the situation for A.pinasapo is reported to be improving while Italian experts highlight that during the last 50 years, a severe degradation (80% severity) has affected 50% of the surface of A. nebrodensis stands.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
About 40% of the current distribution of the habitat type lies within the EU 28, considering also Abies cilicica, with infered distribution of 3,307 km2; A. pinsapo subsp marocana and A. numidica with 30 km2 each.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat is spread in all major Mediterranean mountains.

Pressures and Threats:
The most significant past threats for the habitat were grazing and forest exploitation. These past threats seem to be now substituted by climate change-related stressors like the presence of diseases and changes in abiotic conditions (including precipitation regimes and aridity).

Conservation and Management:
Very large proportion of the habitat are currently located inside protected areas. For the very small, relictual and isolated populations of the dominant species the germplasm conservation might be opportune.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The Mediterranean Abies species have shown capable of recolonizing severely damaged areas (e.g. after agricultural colonization and abandonment) and the rest of habitat species may slowly follow given nearby refugia. As all forest types, slow time lapses apply for recovery.

Summary:
This habitat comprises three distinctive xerophytic coniferous woodlands with either Abies pinsapo, A. nebrodensis or A. cephalonica occurring on shallow, drought-prone soils within the lower to mid-altitudinal belts of the Mediterranean climatic zone. There, these firs of very limited, sometimes relictual, distribution are able to maintain a competitive advantage against other trees and dominate in woodlands of highly distinctive character, each with its own associated flora. This habitat has been widely used in the past for wood and firewood productions and this, together with grazing, were significant threats. Now climate change-related seems to prime danger. A significant portion of the habitat is currently protected inside protected areas. For relictual and isolated populations of the dominant tree the main conservation need is to ensure regeneration.

References:
Alizoti P.G., Fady B., Prada M.A., Vendramin G.G. Mediterranean firs, Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use. EUFORGEN.
http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/pdfs/EUFORGEN/1507_Mediterranen_firs_Abies_spp.pdf.
Arista, A., Alaoui, M.L., Knees, S. & Gardner, M. 2011. Abies pinsapo. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T42295A10679577. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T42295A10679577.en .
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. & Weber, H. (2004) Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe.  Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.              
Brullo S., Giusso Del Galdo G., Guarino R., 2001. The orophilous communities of the Pino-Juniperetea class in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean area. Feddes Repert. 112: 261-308.
Council of Europe (2010), Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats.  Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. & Hill, M.O. (2004), EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised.  Report to the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.
European Commission DG Environment (2007), Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.
European Environment Agency (2006), European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No 9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Farjon, A. and Filer, D. 2013. An Atlas of the World's Conifers. Brill, Leiden/Boston
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. & Rodwell, J.S. (2013), Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.  
Thomas, P. 2013. Abies nebrodensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T30478A9544830. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T30478A9544830.en .
Gardner, M. & Knees, S. 2011. Abies cephalonica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T38320A10110896. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T38320A10110896.en .

Criterion A Text:
Based on territorial dataset provided by territorial experts, the overall quantitative reduction is negligible.

Criterion B Text:
Based on distribution data and maps, both EOO and AOO largely exceed the thresholds for the application of Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
Based on territorial datasheet provided by the project team, an overall negligible qualitative decline was reported with an average severity of 20%, both in EU28 and EU28+. It is worth to mention that the habitat stands in Sicily show a decline in quality of 80% severity in the last 50 years.

Synthesis:
The habitat is considered as Least Concern (LC) given the small changes in quality and quantity of the habitat for the last 50 year period. No analysis has been posible for historical period due to lack of data.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat includes three subtypes, and at least two of these merit further analysis. First of all the Abies pinsapo forests that are only present in south of Spain and north of Morocco. The species A. pinsapo has been asses

Contributors:
Habitat description: J. Rodwell
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, L. Casella, P. Dimopoulos, C. Giancola, G. Giusso del Galdo, J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, J. Rodwell, S. Sciandrello
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
This pine forest is dominated by the Canarian endemic Pinus canariensis, which constitutes the potential natural vegetation or dominant habitat type in the corresponding vegetation belts of the western Canary Islands, where volcanic mountains reach sufficient elevation. It occupies an altitudinal range between 1,250 and 2,000-2,300 m on northern slopes, above the cloud layer (mar de nubes) caused by the trade winds. There it occurs above the lauroid forest belt (monteverde), while on southern slopes it is in contact with the xerophytic lowland Canarian habitats with junipers. Locally, on rocky outcrops, it can extend down to 500 m and it is also a colonizer of lava depositions (malpaíses). These woodlands vary from open to dense depending on the soil and slope conditions, and consist of pine stands in most places, having an understory of woody legumes (Adenocarpus viscosus, Chamaecytisus proliferus), Lamiaceae (Bystropogon origanifolius, Sideritis soluta) and Cistaceae (Cistus symphytifolius). They are out of the mist influence of the cloud layer and subsist under dry sunny conditions.
This habitat is the remnant of an ancient forest which was widespread in the western Mediterranean basin in the late Tertiary period (remnants have also been found in southern France and mainland Spain), but it is now only restricted to the Canary Islands, hosting lineages of a genuine Mediterranean flora. Stands have been extensively logged in the past due to their timber value and they continue to be exploited as an important resource, particularly in artificial plantations located on deep soils and in the moister areas naturally occupied by the lauroid forest. The Canary Pine (Pinus canariensis) is a fire-adapted tree, with a thick bark that resists fire and the capacity to resprout.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Pinus canariensis, Adenocarpus viscosus, Bystropogon origanifolius s. l.,Chamaecytisus proliferus s. l., Cistus symphytifolius s. l., Juniperus cedrus, Lotus campylocladus, Lotus hillebrandii, Lotus spartioides, Micromeria benthamii, Micromeria lanata, Micromeria pineolens, Micromeria varia meridialis, Sideritis oroteneriffae, Sideritis soluta, Teline stenopetala spachiana, Tinguarra montana, Isoplexis isabelliana*
Birds: Fringilla teydea, Dendrocopos major canariensis*, Dendrocopos major thanneri*
*Priority species included in the Annexes of the Birds and Habitats Directive
Indicators of quality:
Little or no signs of exploitation signs, such as logging.
No signs of heavy grazing.
No signs of invasive alien species (i.e. Escholtzia californica, Pennisetum setaceum, Ailanthus altissima, etc. start to be relatively abundant in certain areas).
Structural diversity/ complexity with (semi)natural age structure or completeness of layers.
Presence of old trees and a variety of dead wood (lying or standing) and the associated flora, fauna and fungi.

Classification:
EUNIS: 
Canary Island Pinus canariensis woodland
EuroVegChecklist alliances: 
Cisto symphytifolii-Pinion canariensis Rivas Goday et Esteve ex Esteve 1969
Annex 1: 
9550 Canary Island endemic pine forests
Emerald:
G3.8 Canary Island Pinus canariensis woodland
MAES-2:
Terrestrial woodland and forest
IUCN:
1.5. Subtropical/Tropical Dry Forests
European Forest Types:
FT 10.3 Canarian pine forest

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The distribution of this habitat is restricted to central and western Canary Islands, particularly in the islands of Tenerife, La Palma, Gran Canaria, El Hierro and (punctually) La Gomera.

Map Description:
The map is complete. Data source: Art17.

Trends in Quantity:
An historical decline has been documented, especially from the XVI to the XVIII Centuries, where strong deforestation for house and ship construction occurred in certain islands. This tendency is supposed to have been reverted during the last third of the XVIII Century, but there is no accurate data from 1760. The trend for the last 50 years is considered to be stable. A significant surface has been reforested with P. canariensis (mainly during the 1960s), but species composition and forest dynamics seem to be very far from their natural stage. This reforested surface has not been considered in the assessment. Their inclusion would raise the total surface up to 780 km2 (according to Fernández-Palacios et al. 2001), compared to the 390 km2 currently considered.

Trends in Quality:
There is no sufficient evidence to assess the historical trends of quality. The data from the territorial data sheet, and from the Habitats Directive reporting for the type 9550 shows agreement on a the current trend of quality to be considered stable. This is partially due to the fact that the Canary Pine forest is currently protected under the Habitats Directive and most of its area is located inside protected areas.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
100% of the current distribution of the habitat type lies within the EU 28.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has a very small natural range (smaller than the threshold of 50,000 km2), but the habitat does not show signs of decline or regression in the past 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The Canary Pine is particularly adapted to the volcanic conditions of the Canary Islands, and its range is limited to the central and western Canary Islands.

Pressures and Threats:
There are no plausible threats that may cause significant decline leading to the collapse of the habitat in the near future. Likely threats causing habitat degradation have been identified, such as invasive alien species that are starting to become relatively abundant in certain areas (Escholtzia californica, Pennisetum setaceum, Ailanthus altissima, etc.), and mismanagement of forest fires. The Canary Pine forest is well adapted to fire, thus the intensity and frequency of forest fires should be carefully monitored.

Conservation and Management:
Significant areas or natural Pinus canariensis forest are under protection, which is leading to relatively good conservation status. It is recommended to continue with this protection policy. Additionally, urgent management actions are suggested to address common problems in reforested areas (high density, regular spatial distribution, lack of dead wood). Measures suggested include tackling the issue of invasive alien species and the inclusion of disturbances (including fire) to reduce density to 300-600 trees/ha (more similar to natural forest). Repeated fire occurrences and disturbances may favor other characteristic species, like the Great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major), which needs standing dead trees to breed. This species is currently absent in reforested areas.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat recovers very well naturally after disturbances. Some of them, like forest fires, occur naturally in the system. However, other severe damages like logging or heavy goat grazing disable natural regeneration, thus threatening the capacity of the habitat to recover naturally.

Summary:
This pine woodland dominated by the Canarian endemic Pinus canariensis, forms the natural vegetation in the high mountains of the central and western Canary Islands, occurring on slopes in dry sunny conditions above the cloud layer (caused by the trade winds) and, locally, at lower elevations on rocky outcrops and recent lava deposits. The tree cover varies in density is depending on the soil and slope conditions and usually has an understory of woody subshrubs. Stands have been extensively logged in the past due to their timber value. The pine is a fire-adapted tree, with a thick bark that resists fire and having the capacity to resprout. Mismanagement of fires and invasion of non-native species are the main threats.

References:
Arévalo, J. R. and Fernández-Palacios, J. M. 2009. 9550 Pinares endémicos canarios. En: VV.AA., Bases ecológicas preliminares para la conservación de los tipos de hábitat de interés comunitario en España. Madrid: Dirección General de Medio Natural y Política Forestal, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Medio Rural y Marino. 74 p.
Bohn, U., Gollub, G. Hettwer, C., Neuhauslova, Z., Rause, T., Schlüter, H. and Weber, H. 2004. Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.              
Council of Europe. 2010. Interpretation Manual of the Emerald Habitats. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Davies, C.E., Moss, D. and Hill, M.O. 2004. EUNIS Habitat Classification, revised.  Report to the European Topic Centre, European Environment Agency.         
Del Arco, M. (ed). 2006. Mapa de vegetación de Canarias. Mapas y memoria general. Grafcan Eds.
Del Arco, M. et al. 2010. Actual and potential natural vegetation on the Canary Islands and its conservation status. Biodivers Conserv 19:3089-3140
European Commission DG Environment. 2007. Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Strasbourg: European Commission DG Environment.             
European Environment Agency. 2006. European Forest Types, EEA Technical report No 9/2006, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Farjon, A. 2013. Pinus canariensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T39603A2930093. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T39603A2930093.en. Downloaded on 29 August 2015.
Gonzalez, M. L. 2004. La Evolución histórica de los paisajes forestales de la vertiente norte de Tenerife.
Rivas-Martínez, S., Widpret, W., del Arco, M., Rodríguez, O., Pérez de Paz, P.L., García-Gallo, A., Acebes, J.R., Díaz, T.E. and Fernández-González, F. 1993. Las comunidades vegetales de la isla de Tenerife (Islas Canarias). Itinera Geobot 7: 169-374.
Schamineé, J.H.J., Chytrý, M., Hennekens, S., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Mucina, L. and Rodwell, J.S. 2013. Review of EUNIS forest habitat classification, Report EEA/NSV/13/005. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.

Criterion A Text:
The surface of this habitat is estimated to be stable for the last 50 years, and therefore the habitat is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion A1. A stable and historical trend is also likely to apply, but there is no specific data to confirm these trends.

Criterion B Text:
There is no continuing decline neither in the EOO or the AOO of this habitat type, neither a threatening process foreseen in the next 20 years. There is no evidence of plausible threats that could cause the collapse of this habitat type, and for this reason locations are not calculated. Therefore, the habitat type is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B. However, threats should be closely monitored since its re-evaluation may cause the habitat type to be threatened in the future.

Criterion C/D Text:
The trend in quality during the last 50 years is considered to be stable. This is partially due to the fact that the majority of the Canary Pine forests stands are currently inside protected areas, and all the habitat is under European protection (it is included in the Annex I of the Habitats Directive). Therefore this habitat is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion C/D, C1 and D1. There is no data supporting historic or future trends.

Criterion E Text:
There is no information available to assess the habitat type under Criterion E. Therefore this habitat is assessed as Data Deficient under Criterion E.

Synthesis:
The habitat type is assessed as Least Concern on the basis of its stable trends in quantity and quality, and the fact that there are no known plausible threats that may induce collapse in the near future to the habitat. However, it has a very restricted distribution and it is recommended that the threats and trends are periodically monitored.

Contributors:
Habitat description: J. Loidi
Territorial data: J. Loidi
Working Group Forests: F. Attore, R-J. Bijlsma, M. Chytrý, P. Dimopoulos, B. Renaux, A. Ssymank, T. Tonteri, M. Valderrabano


Habitat Description:
The habitat is represented by chionophile vegetation on places that retains late-lying snow (snowfield, snowbed and snow-patch), often on the drift from the melting snow-patches. They are well developed in boreal and arctic mountains and in sub-arctic lowlands. Dominants may be mosses, liverworts, lichens, short graminoids, ferns and small herbs. The species composition depends on the geographical range, the altitude, bedrock (calcareous or siliceous soils) and length of vegetation seasons. On the tops of high mountains in South-Europe snow patches are characterised by the presence of endemic taxa and syntaxa. Often the plant communities are disposed in the depressions of slopes and ridges amongst the dominant acidophilous or caciphilous alpine and sub-alpine grasslands. Soils are poorly developed: Lithosols (1–4 cm), strongly skeletal, often with small stones on the surface. Some of them are rich in fine, organic substances.
The most widespread in mountains throughout the Europe are acidophilous mixed herbaceous-dwarf shrub communities of the class Salicetea herbaceae. The dominant species are Salix herbacea, Ligusticum mutelina, Luzula alpinopilosa many mosses as Polytrichum sexangulare, P. juniperinum, Pohlia commutata, ect. Dwarf willow shrubs belong to shrub not to the snow-patch grasslands, but are included under habitat F2.1. The most widespread acidophilous snow-patch communities in the mountains are dominated from Omalotheca supina, Alopecurus gerardii, Carex spp., Alchemilla spp., etc. But the snow-patch vegetation of Iberian Peninsula is rich in endemics and belongs to the endemic alliance Sedion candollei. The endemic alliance Ranunculion crenatii represents the uncommon, isolated herbaceous snow-patch swards of the southern Dinarides and the Pelagonides. Another endemic alliance Hyalopoion ponticae represent the snow-bed vegetation on acidic soils in the Caucasus Mts.
In Northern Europe (Fennoscandia, the Scottish Highlands, Iceland, Greenland and arctic islands) snow-patch communities are dominated by mosses (Distichium capillaceum, Pohlia spp.), lichens or coarse tussock forming grasses, like Deschampsia cespitosa. On Svalbard some snow-beds over siliceous bedrock are dominated by Dicranoweissia crispula, with Andreaea blyttii, A. obovata and A. rupestris as characteristic species. The northern alliance Cassiopo--Salicion herbaceae is very similar to the alpine Salicion herbaceae, but diagnostic are typical arctic species like Carex bigelowii and Harrimanella hypnoides. Specific are some snowbed communities of Fennoscandian Mountains, Iceland and Scottish Highlands, which are dominated by ferns as Cryptogramma crispa, Athyrium distentifolium (Athyrium alpestre), Athyrium filix-femina, Dryopteris expansa (Dryopteris assimilis) or Dryopteris filix-mas.
Calciphilous boreo-alpine snow patch grasslands (Arabidetalia caeruleae) are rich in small herbs, grasses and mosses. Among the characteristic species are Arabis caerulea, Carex atrata, Saxifraga androsacea and Ranunculus alpestris. Open, herbaceous communities on wet (from melting snow), calcareous stones in Scandinavian mountains belong to the alliance Saxifrago oppositifoliae-Oxyrion digynae (=Ranunculo-Oxyrion digynae). Typical species here are Oxyria digyna, Cerastium cerastoides, Cetraria delisei and Saxifraga oppositifolia.
The vegetation communities mostly cover small areas above the forest belt (alpine and sub-alpine parts) in the high mountains of Central and Eastern Europe: Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians and Caucasus, and in the Scottish Highlands and Sudeten. In South-European Mountains, they are spread very locally in the Paeonian Mountains, Sierra Nevada, Cordillera Central, Monti Sibillini, Abruzzi, Balkan Mountains as Pirin and Rila Mts. and some of the Dinarides.
In a good condition the habitat is represented by communities in patches with different sizes, within a matrix of the dominant alpine, subalpine and tundra grasslands. The development of these communities depends on the duration of snow cover, amount of snowfall in winter and water supply from melting snow-patches. Moss and lichen communities are very sensitive to any disturbance. Alpine and subalpine communities are threatened by overgrazing and development for tourism (ski tracks, trampling on tourist routes, etc). Global warming is another serious threat, because it reduces the snow-patch size, decreases the duration of snow cover and increases the duration of the vegetation growing season.
Indicators of good quality:
High amount of snowfall and long-term snow cover
High species richness
Presence of rare and/or threatened species (on high mountains also endemic species)
High cover of lichens and mosses (in some varieties

Characteristic species:  
Vascular plants: Achillea clusiana, A. lingulata, Alchemilla pentaphyllea, A. fissa, A. pentaphyllea, A. subsericea, Alopecurus gerardii, A. riloensis, Androsace carnea ssp. laggeri, Arabis alpina, A. caerulea, Athyrium filix-femina, A. distentifolium, Bartsia alpina, Calamagrostis purpurea, Carex atrata, C. bigelowii, C. foetida, C. kitaibeliana, C. lachenalii, C. norvegica, C. ornithopodioides, C. parviflora, C. pyrenaica, Cardamine alpina, C. pratensis subsp. dentata, Cerastium alpinum, C. arcticum, C. cerastoides, Crocus veluchensis, Cryptogramma crispa, Deschampsia alpina, Dianthus microlepis, Draba crassifolia, Dryopteris expansa, D. filix-mas, Festuca picturata, F. supina, Galium saxatile, Gentiana alpina, Gentiana verna, Geum montanum, Homogyne alpina, Hutchinsia alpina, Juncus biglumis, Lepidium stylatum, Ligusticum mutellina, Luzula alpinopilosa, L. arctica, L. confusa, L. desvauxii, L. spadicea, Minuartia biflora, Nardus stricta, Omalotheca hoppeana, O. supina, Oxyria digyna, Phippsia algida, Plantago alpina, P. atrata, Poa alpina, P. arctica, P. granitica, Poa pirinica, P. supina, Polygonum viviparum, Potentilla brauniana, P. crantzii, P. hyparctica, P. ternata, Primula integrifolia, P. stricta, Ranunculus alpestris, R. crenatus, R. glacialis, R. montanus, R. nivalis, R. pseudomontanus, R. pygmaeus, R. sulphureus, Salix herbacea, S. polaris, Sagina saginoides, Saussurea alpina, Selaginella selaginoides, Sibbaldia procumbens, Soldanella alpina, S. carpatica, Saxifraga androsacea, S. cernua, S. nivalis, S, oppositifolia, S. rivularis, S. stellaris, S. tenuis, S. wahlenbergii, Sedum alpestre, S. candollei, Sesleria coerulans, S. tatrae, Silene acaulis, Soldanella minima, Taraxacum apenninum, T. bithynicum Taraxacum croceum, Thalictrum alpinum, Trifolium thalii, Trisetum spicatum Veronica alpina, V. aphylla, Viola biflora
Mosses: Barbilophozia floerkii, Bryum elegans, Dicranum falcatum, Distichium capillaceum, Gymnomitrion concinnatum, Harrimanella hypnoides, Hylocomium splendens, Jungermania atrovirens, Kiaeria falcata, K. starkei, Lophozia wenzelii, Oligotrichum hercynicum, Pleurocladula albescens, Pohlia albicans, P. drummondii, Polytrichum alpinum, P. juniperinum, P. gracile, P. norvegicum, P. pyliferum, P. sexangulare, Racomitrium sudeticum, Tayloria froelichiana, Timmia austriaca, T. norvegica, Tortella tortuosa
Lichens: Anthelia juratzkana, Cladonia exmocyna, Cetraria delisei, Cetraria islandica, Pogonatum alpinum, Solorina crocea

Classification:
EUNIS:
E4.1 Vegetated snow-patch
Annex 1:
6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands
6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands
EuroVegChecklist (alliances):
On siliceous substrate:
Salicion herbaceae Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et Jenny 1926             
Salici herbaceae-Caricion lachenalii Béguin et Theurillat 1982
Festucion picturatae Krajina 1933 corr. Dúbravcová 2007              
Ranunculion crenati Lakušic 1968            
Sedion candollei Rivas-Mart., Fernández González et Loidi in Rivas-Mart. et al. 2011
Hyalopoion ponticae Rabotnova et Onipchenko in Onipchenko 2002     
Cassiopo-Salicion herbaceae Nordhagen 1943
Deschampsio-Anthoxanthion Gjaerevoll 1950
Ranunculo-Oxyrion digynae Nordhagen 1943
On calcareous substrate:
Arabidion caeruleae Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et Jenny 1926
Saxifrago oppositifoliae-Oxyrion digynae Gjaerevoll 1950
Ranunculo-Poion alpinae Gjaerevoll ex Daniëls hoc loco
Emerald:  
E4.11 Boreo-alpine acidocline snow-patch grassland and herb habitats
E4.12 Boreo-alpine calcicline snow-patch grassland and herb habitats
MAES:
Grassland
IUCN: 
4.4. Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Vegetated snow-patches are important elements of boreal and arctic mountains and sub-arctic lowlands. Furthermore, the communities occur in the high mountains of Central and Eastern Europe and in the Scottish highlands and Sudetes.

Map Description:
The map is rather incomplete for Scandinavia and the Balkan, and also in most other parts of the range data gaps are likely. Data sources: EVA, NAT.

Comment EU28+:
no data from Sweden, Slovenia, Albania, Iceland, Russia (Kaliningrad), Serbia

Trends in Quantity:
Whereas the habitat type remained more or less stable in Scandinavia, a decrease in area has been recorded in the Alps, Carpathians and Pyrenees. Overall, a slight decrease in area of 13.7% (EU28) and 5.8% (EU28+) has been observed across Europe over the last approximately 50 years. On the one hand, the decline was related to the effects of global warming, which lead to alterations of abiotic conditions and species composition. On the other hand, the decrease was due to destruction of sites caused by touristic development (construction of skiing complexes, ski tracks and related infrastructure; piste reshaping) in mountain environments. According to the territorial data the current average trend in habitat quantity is decreasing and this trend looks set to continue in the future. Although the trend in Scandinavia was reported to be stable, there is evidence of declines in snow-bed species in the arctic regions, for example on the island of Jan Mayen.

Trends in Quality:
All countries except Norway and Finland reported a decline in quality over the last 50 years. The extent of degradation in EU28 and EU28+ is 9.7% with a severity of degradation of 30.1%  and 2.5% with 33.8% severity, respectively. Despite missing or incomplete data from several countries, the calculation of trends in quality is based on a sufficient dataset to reflect the pan-European situation. The degradation was caused by airborne nitrogen inputs and by the effects of global warming, which lead to alterations of abiotic conditions and species composition. Furthermore, the degradation was also due to local overgrazing and trampling impacts. According to the territorial data the current average trend in habitat quality is decreasing and this trend looks set to continue in the future, but little is known about the real effects of climate change on plant species and communities.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Approximately 45%. Regarding EU28+ further major occurrences are in Norway, Iceland and Switzerland. Outside EU28+ the habitat type is found in Russia, Georgia, Ukraine and in Greenland.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat type is widely distributed in temperate, boreal and arctic mountain regions across Europe. The EOO is larger than 50000 km².

Justification of Restricted Area:
Though the occurrence of the habitat is dependent on sites that retain late-lying snow like snow-patches, snowfields and snowbeds, the underlying factors are not restricted to a small total area or range. The habitat is widely distributed in high mount

Pressures and Threats:
Vegetated snow patches are threatened by global warming, as these habitats depend on the duration of the snow cover, snow depth and water supply from melting snow-patches. The effects of climate change as well as airborne nitrogen intputs cause alteration of abiotic conditions and species composition. On a local scale, deterioration of habitats is also induced by overgrazing. Further major threats are related to sport and leisure structures: the construction or expansion of skiing comlexes may cause habitat loss due to destruction of sites. Already existing resorts have negative impacts on the habitat quality due to measures like piste reshaping and other corresponding disturbances.

Conservation and Management:
The development and condition of this habitat type depends on snow depth, duration of snow cover and water supply from melting snow-patches and hence the habitats are heavily affected by global warming. Furthermore, the habitat is also affected by nitrogen input due to air pollution. For this reason the habitats will benefit most from enhanced environmental protection and pollution control measures. As overgrazing and trampling have also negative effects on the species composition of the habitats, provident management strategies are necessary to delimit local overgrazing. This can be realised best in protected areas.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
6150: ALP FV, ATL U2, BOR FV
6170: ALP U1, ATL U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Vegetated snow patches are natural habitats. Once completely destroyed (e. g. due to construction of skiing complexes), the recovery of the habitat type by natural succession processes will take a very long time. Disturbed habitats with modified species composition due to overgrazing have the capacity for natural recovery in a shorter period of time, if they are not isolated from similar habitats.

Summary:
These snow-bed communities are dominated by grasses, sedges, herbs and cryptogams and often grow mixed with or adjacent to F2.1 Dwarf-shrub snow-bed communities. They occur on skeletal, sometimes humic, soils in boreal and arctic mountains and the subarctic lowlands of Europe, the species composition depending on regional climate, altitude and bedrock type, and sometimes including endemics. Both habitat quantity and quality have been affected by influences from climate change, airborne nitrogen inputs, intensive grazing and skiing complexes and, over recent historic time, there have been decrseases in extent and habitat quality.. Concerning conservation, the habitats would benefit from enhanced environmental protection and pollution control measures. As overgrazing and trampling have also negative effects on the species composition of the habitats, provident management strategies are necessary to delimit local overgrazing. This can be realised best in protected areas.

References:
Dierssen K. 1984. Vergleichende vegetationskundliche Untersuchungen an Schneeböden (zur Abgrenzung der Klasse Salicetea herbaceaei) Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft 97: 359-382.
Braun-Blanquet J. 1975. Fragmenta Phytosociologica Raetica I: Die Schneebodengesellschaften (Klasse der Salicetea herbaceae). Jahresbericht der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft Graubünden 96: 42-71.
Elvebakk, A. 1984. Vegetation pattern and ecology of siliceous boulder snow beds on Svalbard. Polarforschung 54 (1): 9-20.
Englisch, T. 1993. Salicetea herbaceae. In: Mucina L. & Grabherr G. (eds.), Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs, Teil 2. Gustav Fischer, Jena, pp 382-401.
Gottfried, M., H. Pauli, A. Futschik, M. Akhalkatsi, P. BaranË‡cok, J. L. B. Alonso, G. Coldea, J. Dick, B. Erschbamer, M. R. F. Calzado, G. Kazakis, J. KrajË‡ci, P. Larsson, M. Mallaun, O. Michelsen, D. Moiseev, P. Moiseev, U. Molau, A. Merzouki, L. Nagy, G. Nakhutsrishvili, B. Pedersen, G. Pelino, M. Puscas, G. Rossi, A. Stanisci, J.-P. Theurillat, M. Tomaselli, L. Villar, P. Vittoz, I. Vogiatzakis & G. Grabherr 2012. Continent-wide response of mountain vegetation to climate change. Nature Climate Change 2: 111-115.
Kapfer, J., R. Virtanen & J-A. Grytnes 2012. Changes in arctic vegetation on Jan Mayen Island over 19 and 80 years. Journal of Vegetation Science 23: 771–781.
Onipchenko V. 2004 (ed.). Alpine ecosystems of Northwest Caucasus. Geobotany 29. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Sanda V., A. Popescu & I. Peicea 1988. Les associations de la classe Salicetea herbaceae Br.-Bl. 47 des Carpates roumaines. Rev. roum. biol. S'er. biol.veg. 33: 90-102.
Schöb, C., P. M. Kammer, P. Choler & H. Veit 2009: Small-scale plant species distribution in snowbeds and its sensitivity to climate change. Plant Ecology 200: 91-104

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets. The calculated trend in the last 50 years is a reduction of about 13.7% (EU28) and 5.8% (EU28+), resulting in the category Least Concern. No or unsufficient quantitative data are available for A2a, A2b and A3. It is likely that there will be a future further decline in quantity because of global warming. However, it is unsure whether the thresholds for A2a or A2b will be met, therefore these criteria have been assessed as Data Deficient.

Criterion C/D Text:
The values for C/D1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets. The calculated figures result in the Least Concern category. No reliable data (%) are available for C/D2, C/D3, C1, C2, C3, D1, D2 and D3. It is likely that there will be a future decline in abiotic quality because of global warming. This can be assumed to affect almost all occurrences of the habitat, with unknown severity (but at least slight). Therefore, the criteria C/D2 and C2 will meet the thresholds for Vulnerable.

Synthesis:
Despite missing data from important countries in terms of area, like Sweden and Iceland, the available data seem to reflect well the pan-European situation. The calculated decreases in quantity and quality are well below the thresholds to qualify for Near Threatened category. The geographic distribution is also not restricted (EOO ≥ 50000 km², AOO ≥ 50). However, some concern exists about future trends, as the habitat is vulnerable to climate change, and it is likely that the abiotic conditions will be (at least slightly) negatively affected over the whole range, leading to the category Vulnerable (VU) for future changes in quality.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Maybe a split in arctic/boreal snow-beds and temperate mountain snow-beds could be made, as these sub-habitats may differ in their vulnerability to climate change.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: R. Tzonev.
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, A. B. G. Averis, A. M. Averis, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, L. Casella, R. Delarze, P. Finck, Z. KÄ…cki, T. Kontula, M. Janišová, J.Loidi, V, Matevski, A. Mikolajczak, D. MilanoviÄ‡, F. Millaku, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Rusakova, A. Ssymank.
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Capelo, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminee, R. Tzonev.
Further contributors: F. Essl.


Habitat Description:
The vegetation of this habitat is dominated by succulent plants of the Chenopodiaceae family and perennial, rosette-forming Limonium species as well as other salt-tolerant Mediterranean plants and sometimes also albardín (esparto like) grass (Lygeum spartum) in the less saline stretches of the gradient. This habitat occurs in the Mediterranean area, in continental or coastal areas but far from the influence of the sea, under severe climatic drought conditions where endorrheic (non or poorly-drained) clay basins accumulate soluble salts diluted from the surroundings. Several circumstances need to occur for this to happen: a long and deep summer drought, geological material with abundance of soluble salts (often sulfates) and a flat or gentle topography in which such basins can take place, such as the large depressions of some fluvial systems. Under such conditions, soils are temporarily permeated (though not inundated) by saline water and subject to extreme summer drying, with formation of salt efflorescence which is conspicuous during the dry periods, particularly the summer, and forms a white crust of salt micro-crystals. The most characteristic vegetation is represented by the following species: Sarcocornietea fruticosi (Limonietalia and Sarcocornietalia), Juncetea maritimi (Juncetalia maritimi), Thero-Suaedetea (Thero-Salicornietalia) and Saginetea maritimae (Frankenietalia pulverulentae). Different communities belonging to these units appear in the interior salty steppes in a diversity of combinations depending on the geography, salt concentration and climatic conditions. Often they are surrounded by a ring of Lygeum spartum (albardín) or Stipa tenacissima (esparto) grassland in the foothill of the depression together with the succulents, a high number of narrow endemic species of Limonium occur in those communities and with a number of broader distributed reeds (Juncus) and annuals. This vegetation complex presents a phenology in which annuals develop in early spring and perennials in late summer, in a successive flowering pattern which is particularly useful for the local herding management which has to survive the very severe summer drought.
In many areas of the Iberian Peninsula, these salt steppes have been traditionally grazed by sheep or goats, and such use has been compatible with its conservation in good conditions, with all the halophile species and some others linked with grazing activity. Nevertheless, in recent times, as a result of an ancient belief in the local population that these areas could be transformed into arable land, some disastrous initiatives have taken place such as draining, tilling, fertilizing and others, which have caused severe damage to this habitat. This has been done in spite of being declared as a priority habitat by the European Union (EU), in part due to the pressure of the local rural population wills, with the goal of converting these poor and sterile areas into productive ones.
Indicators of good quality:
Dominance of halophile species
A medium to high vegetation cover
Absence of nitrophilic species linked to human activities
No visible anthropic disturbances due to draining, tilling, building activities, rubbish accumulation or intensive trampling

Flora: Vascular plants. This habitat is characterized by the following halophytic perennials of inland salt steppes: Arthrocnemun macrostachyum, Carex punctata subsp. lainzii, Elytrigia curvifolia, Frankenia corymbosa, Halocnemum strobilaceum, Gypsophila tomentosa, Helianthemum polygonoides, Limonium angustibracteatum, Limonium aragonense, Limonium caesium, Limonium carpetanicum, Limonium catalaunicum, Limonium cofrentanum, Limonium cordovillense, Limonium costae, Limonium delicatulum, Limonium dichotomum, Limonium erectum, Limonium furfuraceeum, Limonium hybericum, Limonium insigne, Limonium lobetanicum, Limonium majus, Limonium minus, Limonium pinillense, Limonium quesadense, Limonium ruizii, Limonium santapolense, Limonium soboliferum, Limonium squarrosum, Limonium stenophyllum, Limonium sucronicum, Limonium toletanum, Limonium tournefortii, Limonium viciosoi, Microcnemum coralloides, Puccinellia fasciculata, Puccinellia hispanica, Puccinellia pungens, Senecio auricula subsp. auricula, Senecio auricula subsp. castellanus, Sonchus crassifolius, Suaeda vera subsp. braun-blanquetii. 
Halophytic perennials: Juncus acutus, Juncus maritimus, Juncus subulatus, Plantago maritima. 
Halophytic annuals: Aeluropus littoralis, Frankenia pulverulenta, Halopeplis amplexicaulis, Hordeum marinum, Hymenolobus procumbens, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum, Parapholis incurva, Sagina maritima, Salicornia patula, Sphenopus divaricatus, Spergularia marina, Spergularia media, Suaeda maritima, Suaeda splendens.

Classification:
EUNIS:
D6.1 Inland saltmarshes 
EuroVegChecklist:
Arthrocnemion macrostachyi Rivas-Martínez & Costa 1984
Gaudinio-Podospermion cani S. Brullo et Siracusa 2000 (Sicily, Southern Italy)
Halo-Artemision coerulescentis Pignatti 1953
Juncion maritimi Br.-Bl. In Br.-Bl et al. 1952 (Soncho crassifolii-Juncenion maritimi Rivas-Martínez 1984)
Limonion catalaunico-viciosoi Rivas-Mart. et Costa 1984
Lygeo sparti-Limonion furfuracei Rigual 1972       
Lygeo-Lepidion cardaminis Rivas Goday et Rivas-Mart. ex Rivas-Mart. et Costa 1984
Microcnemion corallodis Rivas-Martínez 1984
Pholiuro-Spergularion Pignatti 1952
Puccinellion lagascanae Rivas-Mart. in Rivas-Mart. et Costa 1976 corr. Alonso et De la Torre 2004
Suaedion braun-blanquetii Br.-Bl. & O. Bolòs 1958 (=Suaedion brevifoliae)
Annex I:
1510 *Mediterranean salt-steppes (Limonietalia)
Emerald:
D6.1 Inland saltmarshes
D6.23 Interior Iberian salt pan meadows
MAES-2:
Grassland
IUCN
5.16. Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat is restricted to the Mediterranean region. It is widespread but it does not cover large areas. The vegetation is rich in endemic species (especially Limonium spp.).

Map Description:
Map is likely to be complete. Data sources: Art17.

Trends in Quantity:
Considering the territorial information provided, a decrease of about 14% for the EU 28 is calculated. However, considering that there is lack of data for parts of the distribution of this habitat, the assessor estimates a decrease of ca. 30%. The main cause of change is mostly land conservion to arable and urban development. A slight ongoing decrease in spatial extent is also to be expected because the threats are ongoing. On the other hand, the habitat can recolonize abandoned salt pans.

Trends in Quality:
The extent (ca. 10%) and severity of the degradation (ca. 35%), were both calculated with data from two countries only (Portugal and Italy) as information from other countries was not available. The overall quality of the habitat is decreasing, although in some areas it is rather stable. Complete past datasets are not available, but a decline in quality has been observed by most territorial experts.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably less than 50% (uncertain estimation). The habitat also occurs on the African and Turkish areas of the Mediterranean.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is restricted to special soil, hydrological and climatic conditions.

Pressures and Threats:
This habitat is impacted by the numerous development programs occuring in the coastal areas. While quantitative past data are often not available, a decrease in the distribution area has been observed by most territorial experts mainly as a result of urbanization sensu lato (including tourism) and land conversion. The coastal areas where this habitat occurs are constantly under development programs. Human disturbance (trampling, driving off road) are also important threats. Pollution, alien species and ruderalisation because of overgrazing were also reported for some countries.

Conservation and Management:
The habitat is subject to severe aggression due to the pressure to convert those sites into urban areas and arable land. This process needs to be stopped through stricter protection and proper incentives. A relatively high grazing pressure by sheep or goats has been a traditional practice and is perfectly sustainable for the management of this habitat type. Construction of touristic infrastructure (such as paths across some sites) could prevent trampling, offroad driving, etc. Finally, the establishment of new protected areas is needed.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat has some capacity to recover naturally if salt accummulation is ongoing and seed sources are near.

Summary:
This habitat is typical of inland situations in the Mediterranean region where the soils of flats or gentle hollows are permeated by waters laden with soluble salts from underlying substrates, and are then subject to extreme summer drought, with surface efflorescence of crystalline deposits. The vegetation is dominated by halophytes, and can be rich in endemics, but the particular species composition depends on the regional climate and local soil conditions and there is often a distinctive seasonal pattern of growth and zonation around the hollows. In some regions, the vegetation has provided valuable grazing for sheep and goats in summer drought but abandonment of traditional agriculture, urbanisation and tourism have caused substantial losses in extent and quality.

References:
Rivas-Martínez, S., Asensi, A., Díez-Garretas, B., Molero, J., Valle, F., Cano, E., Costa, M., Villar, L., Díaz, E., Fernández Prieto, J.A., Llorens, L., del Arco, M., Fernández-González, F., Sánchez-Mata, D., Penas, A., Del Río, S., Masalles, R., Ladero, M., Amor, A., Izco, J., Amigo, J., Loidi, J., Navarro, G., Cantó, P., Alcaraz, F., Báscones, J.C., Soriano, P. 2011. Mapa de series, geoseries y geopermaseries de vegetación de España [Memoria del mapa de vegetación potencial de España]. Parte II. Itinera Geobotanica 18 (1 and 2): 5-800.

Criterion A Text:
The habitat is assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion A1 since it is estimated that the habitat has undergone a decline of around 30% over the past 50-60 years. There is no information available on the future and historic reduction in quantity of this habitat type.

Criterion B Text:
EOO and AOO values are far above the thresholds for criterion B and the number of locations where this habitat is present is high. Even though there is, a continuing slow decline expected to occur in most countries, with a threatening process likely to cause continuing declines within the next 20 years, the habitat is assessed as Least Concern (LC) under criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The habitat is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion C/D1 for the EU28 and EU28+, with a severity of 10% affecting 35% of the extent of the habitat quality. However, it has to be noted that this calculation is based only on data provided by Italy and that there is no other information available from other countries to calculate this decline in quality. The habitat is assessed as Data Deficient at the EU 28+ under Criterion C/D, C and D.

Criterion E Text:
There is no information available to calculate the probability of collapse of this habitat type under Criterion E, and thus it is assessed as Data Deficient.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assessed as Vulnerable (VU) under Criterion A1 as it has experienced a reduction in quantity of 30% over the last 50-60 years.

Contributors:
Type description: J. Loidi
Territorial experts: E. Agrillo, O. Argagnon, F. Attorre, S. Bagella, J. Capelo, L. Casella, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo, D. Gigante, G. Giusso Del Galdo, J. Loidi, C. Marcenò, S. Sciandrello, D. Viciani
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
E4.3a Boreal and arctic acidophilous alpine grassland

Habitat Description:
Boreal and arctic acidophilous alpine grasslands represent grass-, sedge-, rush- or herb-dominated vegetation types in boreal and arcto-alpine mountains of Fennoscandia, Iceland and Scotland. The habitat includes a quite wide range of different vegetation communities from low-graminoid mountain heaths to mountain meadows. Common to these varieties is a low field layer, usually < 30 cm. These grasslands occur predominantly on siliceous bedrock and they are in most sites characterized by thick and late-lying snow cover.
There is no single characteristic species describing all of these grassland habitats, and the species composition varies according to the vegetation community. In high mountains grasses (Nardus stricta, Festuca ovina), sedges (Carex bigelowii) and/or rushes (Juncus trifidus) dominate the so-called graminoid mountain heaths (order Juncetalia trifidi). Other species present are a mixture of typical species for mountain heaths, snowbeds and mountain meadows. Mountain meadows (secondary grasslands) belonging to this habitat type are low-herb communities consisting mainly of Bistorta vivipara, Cerastium alpinum, Thalictrum alpinum, Saussurea alpina, Ranunculus acris, Silene acaulis, Astragalus alpinus, A. frigidus, Ericeron uniflorus and Potentilla crantzii (alliance Potentillo-Polygonion vivipari), forming a boreal equivalent to E2.3 Mountain hay meadows. The distinction between this habitat type and E4.4a Calcareous arctic-alpine grasslands does not relate only to the chemistry of bedrock, but is also reflected in the average height of vegetation, which in this habitat is usually relatively low.
Climate change can increase the growth of bushes and shrubs, which may reduce the area of grasslands.
Indicators of good quality:
The following characteristics are indicators of good quality:
·      Openness (no trees or shrubs)
·      Dominance of  low sedges, rushes, grasses or hebs
·       Thick snow cover
Characteristic species:
Species marked with (*) are calciphilic in Fennoscandia, but in the arctic are indifferent fro soil type.
Vascular plants: Astragalus alpinus*, Astragalus frigidus*, Bistorta vivipara, Carex bigelowii, Cassiope tetragona, Cerastium alpinum*,Deschampsia flexuosa, Ericeron uniflorus*, Festuca ovina, Hieracium alpinum, Juncus trifidus, Luzula multiflora ssp. frigida, Nardus stricta, Poa alpina*, Potentilla crantzii*, Ranunculus acris ssp. pumila,  Salix polaris*, Saussurea alpina*, Silene acaulis*, Soligado virgaurea, Thalictrum alpinum*, Trisetum spicatum, Veronica alpina*,  Viola biflora 
Mosses and liverworts: Polytrichastrum alpinum, Polyrichum juniperinum
Lichens: Cetraria spp., Flavocetraria spp.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E4.3 Acid alpine and subalpine grassland
EuroVegChecklist:
Carici-Juncion trifidi Nordhagen 1943
Nardo-Caricion rigidae Nordhagen 1943 (Iceland)
Potentillo-Polygonion vivipari Nordhagen ex Dierßen 1992 (alpine parts)
Annex 1:
6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands
Emerald:
E4.3 Acid alpine and subalpine grassland
MAES-2:
Grasslands
IUCN:
4.2 Subarctic grassland
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
Boreal and arctic acidophilous alpine grasslands represent important vegetation types in boreal and arcto-alpine mountains of Fennoscandia.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, although there maybe some occurrences on Iceland or the Far Oer islands. Data sources: EVA, ART17, GBIF.

Trends in Quantity:
Both for EU28 and EU28+ no significant decline has been recorded over the last 50 years. No informations regarding long historical or future trends have been provided in the territorial data sheets.

Trends in Quality:
According to the reported data the quality of the habitat type remained stable over the last 50 years. No informations regarding future trends have been provided in the territorial data sheets.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Less than 40%. Outside the EU28 this habitat occurs in Norway and Iceland. Outside the EU28+ the habitat is found in Russia.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO is larger than 50000 km². The habitat is widespread in the mountainous areas of the Boreal and Arctic biogeographic region.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The underlying factors are not restricted to a limited area or range.

Pressures and Threats:
Though no threats or pressures have been reported by national experts, the habitat type might be at least affected by global warming and air-borne pollutants. Climate change is expected to increase the growth of bushes and shrubs, which may reduce the area of grasslands.

Conservation and Management:
This habitat type contains mainly natural grasslands. Therefore, no special measures are required except avoiding disturbances and destruction of sites. This is achieved best by establishing protected areas and/or wilderness areas. For meadows of this habitat type extensive mowing or grazing is required.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Boreal and arctic acidophilous alpine grasslands represent mainly climax communities. Once destroyed or severely damaged (e. g. due to construction of skiing complexes), the recovery of the habitat type by natural succession processes will take a very long time in the cold climate where they occur.

Summary:
These boreal and arctic acidophilous alpine grasslands, dominated by low graminoids and herbs, are characteristic of shallow base-poor soils with thick late snow-lie, occurring through the high mountains of Fennoscandia, Iceland and Scotland. Largely unthreatened, the habitat quantity and quality have remained stable over the last 50 years, though global warming and air-borne pollutants might be expected to have some futute effect. Avoiding disturbance and destruction of sites will be best achieved by establishing protected areas and/or wilderness areas.

References:
Eurola, S. and Virtanen, R. (1991). Key to vegetation of northern Fennoscandian fjelds. Kilpisjärvi Notes 12. Kilpisjärvi Biological Station, University of Helsinki.
Påhlsson, L. (ed.) (1994). Vegetationstyper i Norden. Nordisk ministerrad.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets. The area remained stable over the last 50 years both for EU28 and EU28 (resulting in category Least
Concern). No data (%) available or unsufficient data for A2a, A2b and A3.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO, AOO and number of locations are all much largr than the thresholds for criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The values for C/D1 were calculated using the territorial data sheets. The calculated figures result in a Least Concern category. No reliable data available (%) for C/D2, C/D3, C1, C2, C3, D1, D2 and D3.

Synthesis:
Despite missing data from Sweden and Iceland and incomplete data from Norway the available data seem to give a reliable overview on the real situation. Both habitat quantity and quality remained stable over the last 50 years. Hence, the overall analysis of territorial data leads according to stable trends in quantity and quality to the category Least Concern (LC) both for EU28 and EU28+.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
No subtypes required for further examination.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: K. Mäkelä.
Territorial data: T. Kontula.
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Capelo, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminee, R. Tzonev.
Further contributors: F. Essl


Habitat Type Name:
E4.3b Temperate acidophilous alpine grassland

Habitat Description:
These grasslands and dwarf chamaephyte communities comprise the climax vegetation on predominantly siliceous bedrocks in the alpine belt throughout the temperate mountains of Europe.  Typical of the highest summits and ridges, often very exposed to strong winds and largely blown clear of snow in the winter, they are characteristic of skeletal rankers and mostly shallow free-draining cambisols that can sometimes also be found on de-calcified soils over basic bedrocks.  Nardus stricta-dominated grasslands included here may be influenced by grazing and where stock or wild herbivores reduce the cover of scrub or heath at lower altitudes, the habitat may extend down into the sub-alpine belt.
The vegetation is mostly species-poor, reflecting the harsh environmental conditions, and comprises xero- to mesophilous, heliophilous and calcifuge grasses, sedges and rushes with a significant contingent of foliose and fruticose lichens. However, very commonly the vegetation is found as part of large-scale mosaics with heaths, snow-bed communities and tall herb vegetation, with which there can be some overlap in species composition (for which reason the vegetation has traditionally been grouped in a broadly defined phytosociological class Juncetea trifidi, = Caricetea curvulae).  Regional subtypes sometime show species vicariance such as Festuca eskia being confined to the Pyrenean Peninsula, Festuca varia and Carex curvula missing from the Western Carpathians, Sesleria comosa typical for Balkan mountains. 
Indicators of good quality:
·       Presence of lichens such as Alectoria ochroleuca, Cetraria islandica, Cladonia spp. div.
·       Stability of populations of rare species
·       No signs of erosion due to grazing, indicated by open soil or patches of unpalatable herbs
·       No visible disturbance by trampling, skiing, or burning
·       Absence of nutrient-demanding weeds
·       Continuance of grazing for Nardus stricta-dominated grasslands.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Agrostis nevadensis, Agrostis rupestris, Anthoxanthum odoratum s. alpinum, Anthyllis vulneraria s. pulchella, Avenula versicolor, Bellardiochloa violacea, Campanula alpina, Campanula herminii, Campanula scheuchzeri, Carex bigelowii, Carex curvula, Carex sempervirens, Cruciata glabra, Cynosurus cristatus, Danthonia decumbens, Deschampsia flexuosa, Euphrasia minima, Festuca airoides, Festuca eskia, Festuca iberica, Gentiana alpina, Gentiana alpina, Geum montanum, Globularia meridionalis, Helianthemum oelandicum s. incanum, Hieracium alpinum, Hieracium lactucella, Holcus lanatus, Homogyne alpina, Iris latifolia, Juncus squarrosus, Juncus trifidus, Koeleria lobata, Leontodon microcephalus, Leontodon pyrenaicus, Leucanthemopsis alpina, Ligusticum corsicum, Ligusticum mutellina, Lotus corniculatus s. carpetanus, Luzula nutans, Luzula spicata, Minuartia recurva, Minuartia verna s. collina, Nardus stricta, Oreochloa disticha, Phyteuma hemisphaericum, Plantago holosteum, Potentilla aurea, Potentilla erecta, Primula minima, Pulsatilla alba/alpina/scherfelii, Ranunculus pyrenaeus, Sagina pilifera, Senecio abrotanifolius, S. incanus, Thymus nervosus, Trifolium alpinum, Trifolium repens, Trinia glauca s. carniolica.
Lichens and bryophytes: Alectoria ochroleuca, Cetraria islandica, Cetraria cucullata, C. nivalis, Cladonia uncialis, Cladonia arbuscula, C. pyxidata, C. rangiferina, Thamnolia vermicularis, Racomitrium lanuginosum, Polytrichum alpinum, P. strictum.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E4.3 Acid alpine and subalpine grassland
EuroVegChecklist:
Agrostion schraderanae Grabherr 1993
Anemonastro sibirici-Festucion ovinae Chytrý et al. 1993  (Russia)
Anemonion speciosae Minaeva ex Onipchenko 2002 (Caucasus)
Carici macrostyli-Nardion (Rivas-Mart. et al. 1984) de Foucault 1994
Carici-Juncion trifidi Nordhagen 1943
Caricion curvulae Br.-Bl. 1925
Festucion eskiae Br.-Bl. 1948
Festucion macratherae Avena et Bruno 1975 corr. Petriccione et Persia 1995
Festucion supinae Br.-Bl. 1948
Festucion variae Br.-Bl. ex Guinochet 1938
Festucion woronowii Tsepkova 1987 (Caucasus)
Juncion trifidi Krajina 1934
Nardion strictae Br.-Bl. 1926
Poion violaceae Horvat et al. 1937
Potentillo montenegrinae-Festucion paniculatae RedÅ¾ic ex Carni et Mucina 2013
Potentillo rigoanae-Festucion paniculatae Di Pietro all. nova
Potentillo ternatae-Nardion Simon 1958
Seslerion comosae Horvat et al. 1937
Annex 1:
6140 Siliceous Pyrenean Festuca eskia grasslands
6150 Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands
62D0 Oro-Moesian acidophilous grasslands
6230 Species-rich Nardus grasslands on silicious substrates in mountain areas (and submontane areas in Continental Europe) (partly)
Emerald:
E4.3 Acid alpine and subalpine grassland
MAES-2:
Grassland
IUCN:
4.4. Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type is widespread throughout all temperate mountain regions of Europe, representing climax communities on predominantly siliceous bedrocks.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, with some data gaps on the Balkan, in the Carpathians and in Switzerland. Data sources: EVA, ART17.

Comment EU28+:
no data from Albania, Montenegro and Serbia

Trends in Quantity:
Average Trend EU28: -9.9% over the last decades
Average Trend EU28+: -8.6% over the last decades
The surface of the habitat type was probably at its maximum around 1850 and since then has been steadily decreasing. Over the last 50 years, a relative loss of area of approximately 10% has been reported in EU28 and EU28+ countries. Whereas the habitat type remained more or less stable in Spain or Slovenia, a more serious decline was reported by Germany, Italy and the Czech Republic, mainly due to abandonment of traditional land-use practices in the subalpine zone and corresponding succession processes. At a local scale, the loss of habitats was also related to the construction of skiing complexes. According to the provided data, an ongoing decline at a pan-European level is expected to occur in the future.

Trends in Quality:
Most of the EU28 countries reported either a slight or a moderate decrease in quality over the last 50 years. Degradation was mainly related to climate change and biocenotic evolution due to abandonment of grazing practices in the subalpine zone. Furthermore, in some areas local overgrazing was also associated with degradation of the habitat. The calculated extent of degradation in EU28 is 18.1% with 31.5% severity of degradation. Concerning EU28+, Switzerland has reported a severe decrease in quality over the last 50 years. The extent of degradation in EU28+ is 19.1% with 34.7% severity of degradation.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
80%. Further important occurences are in Switzerland and on the Balkan peninsula.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO is larger than 50.000 km2. The habitat is widespread across temperate high-mountain regions in Europe.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat type is neither restricted to small spots, nor has a small total area. In fact, large areas in the alpine and subalpine zone of the Alpine biogeographical region are occupied by this habitat type.

Pressures and Threats:
Grasslands in the alpine zone are primary grasslands. As they are temperature dependent, the main threats are related to changes of abiotic conditions due to climate change. It is expected that global warming will raise the timberline and therefore, the vegetation zone will shift upwards. In the subalpine zone, the situation is much more complicated and the major threat comes from abandonment of traditional land-use practices, especially abandonment of pastoral systems, and corresponding succession processes. Other threats, both in the alpine and subalpine zone, are associated with outdoor sports and leisure activities, for example mountaineering and rock climbing. Local loss of habitats occurred due to construction of skiing resorts.

Conservation and Management:
The maintenance of these grasslands by resumption of traditional pastoral systems in the subalpine zone is one of the key factors for conserving this habitat type. Furthermore, provident management strategies are necessary to delimit local overgrazing. To avoid an ongoing loss of habitats due to construction of skiing comlexes further protected areas have to be established in ecologically sensitive areas.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
6140: ALP U1, ATL FV
6150: ALP FV, ATL U2, CON U1
62D0: ALP U1, CON U1
6230: ALP U2, ATL U2, CON U2, MED XX

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Alpine siliceous grasslands represent climax communities, that prefer the highest summits and ridges. Once destroyed or severely damaged (e. g. due to construction of skiing complexes), the recovery of the habitat type by natural succession processes will take a very long time. Semi-natural habitats of the subalpine zone with modified species composition due to abandonment of traditional land-use practices need human intervention for restoration. This can be achieved by re-introducing of traditional pastoral systems.

Summary:
These grasslands and dwarf chamaephyte communities comprise the climax vegetation on skeletal and shallow soils over predominantly siliceous bedrocks in the alpine belt throughout the temperate mountains of Europe, typical of the highest summits and ridges, often very exposed to strong winds and largely blown clear of snow in the winter. There are especially large occurrences in Austria, France, Italy and Switzerland and for both EU28 and EU28+ countries an average modest decrease in quantity and quality have been reported over recent historic time, with more drastic losses in Switzerland. Major pressures are related to changes of abiotic conditions due to climate change, abandonment of traditional land-use practices in the subalpine zone and corresponding succession processes as well as outdoor sports and leisure activities such as mountaineering/rock climbing and construction of skiing complexes. Two of the key factors concerning the maintenance of this habitat type are both resumption of traditional pastoral systems in the subalpine zone and the establishment of protected areas. Once destroyed or severely damaged the recovery of the habitat type by natural processes will take a very long time.

References:
Dúbravcová, Z., Jarolímek, I., Kliment, J., Petrík, A., Šibík, J. and ValachoviÄ, M. 2005. Alpine heaths in the Western Carpathians - a new approach to their classification. Annals of Botany 5: 153-160.
Grabherr, G. and Mucina, L. (eds) 1993. Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs. Teil II. Natürliche waldfreie Vegetation. Gustav Fischer, Jena
Jarolímek, I. and Šibík, J. (eds) 2008. Diagnostic, constant and dominant species of the higher vegetation units of Slovakia. Veda, Bratislava
Kliment, J. and ValachoviÄ, M. (eds) 2007. Plant communities of Slovakia. 4. High-Altitude vegetation. Veda, Bratislava
Kliment, J., Šibík, J., Šibíková, I., Jarolímek, I., Dúbravcová, Z. and UhlíÅ™ová, J. 2010. High-altitude vegetation of the Western Carpathians — a syntaxonomical review. Biologia 65(6): 965-989.
Peyre, G. and Font, X. 2011. Syntaxonomic revision and floristic characterization of the phytosociological alliances corresponding to subalpine and alpine grasslands of the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mountains (classes Caricetea curvulae, Carici-Kobresietea, and Festuco-Seslerietea). Plant Biosystems 145(1): 220-232.
Rivas-Martínez, S., Fernández-González, F., Loidi, J., Lousã, M. and Penas, A. 2001. Syntaxonomical checklist of vascular plant communities of Spain and Portugal to association level. Itinera Geobotanica 14(1): 5-341.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets. The calculated trend in the last 50 years is a reduction of about 9.9% (EU28) and 8.6% (EU28+), respectively (resulting in category Least Concern). No data (%) available or unsufficient data for A2a, A2b and A3.

Criterion B Text:
Both values (AOO and EOO) are relatively large and do not meet criterion B. Sub-criteria were not evaluated because the values for EOO and AOO are well above the thresholds.

Criterion C/D Text:
The values for C/D1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets. The calculated figures result in a Least Concern category. No reliable data (%) available for C/D2, C/D3, C1, C2, C3, D1, D2 and D3.

Synthesis:
As far as EU28+ countries are concerned, data for some countries of the Balkan peninsula are missing. Nevertheless, the overall analysis of territorial data leads according to criteria A1, B1, B2 and C/D1 to the category Least Concern both for EU28 and EU28+. The geographic distribution is not restricted (EOO ≥ 50000 km², AOO ≥ 50).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
In general, subalpine communities are in need of further examination, as they show regional variation and are heavily affected by abandonment of land-use practices which differ from place to place.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Šibík
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, R. Delarze, P. Dimopoulos, P. Finck, M. Janišová, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, M. KoÄí, J.Loidi, V. Matevski, A. Mikolajczak, D. MilanoviÄ‡, F. Millaku P. Perrin, G. Pezzi, U. Raths, U. Riecken, V. Rusakova, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Capelo, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminee, R. Tzonev
Further contributors: F. Essl


Habitat Type Name:
B1.3b Mediterranean and Black Sea shifting coastal dune

Habitat Description:
Embryonic shifting dunes and "white" shifting dunes along the shoreline of the Macaronesian islands, Black Sea, Mediterranean and Thermo-Atlantic region (northwards up to central Portugal) represent the first stages of dune construction. The habitat consists of mobile coastal sand ridges which are occupied by open grasslands; they sometimes form tall dune ridges but in many cases rather low (less than 10 m high). A zonation is distinguished form primary, embryonic dunes towards higher, and more stable white dunes, but these different sectors are not always well separated. Embryonic dunes are characterised by Elymus farctus (= Elytrigia juncea = Agropyron junceum) that produces horizontal rhizomes which crawl along the sand or penetrate it. Its stalks constitute obstacles where sand accumulates to a few decimetres forming embryonic dunes. These dunes are at the start of the psammosere; they grow by sand accretion and are sporadically inundated by the sea during storms. More inland, white shifting dunes are found, characterised by the dominance of Ammophila arenaria (subsp. arundinacea in the Mediterranean) that has a growth form in which the older parts (strong erect culms up to 1.5 m high) protect the plant and enable it to regenerate from its center. Ammophila arenaria is a very important rhizomatous dune species as it constitutes a barrier for windblown sand, contributing to the increase of the dune height. These dunes occur on yellow, very permeable and humus poor soils. Among the characteristic species accompanying the dominant grasses on embryonic and white dunes Sporobolus pungens, Chamaesyce peplis ( = Euphorbia peplis), Otanthus maritimus, Medicago marina, Anthemis maritima, Eryngium maritimum, Pancratium maritimum, Euphorbia paralias, Calystegia soldanella, Echinophora spinosa, Cutandia maritima and Polygonum maritimum could be mentioned. On the Macaronesian islands both Ammophila arenaria and Elymus farctus are absent, but in some places white dunes exist, characterized by Chamaesyce peplis ( = Euphorbia peplis), Euphorbia paralias, Cyperus capitatus, Polygonum maritimum (with some island endemics such as Plantago madarensis on Madeira) and succulent shrubs of the alliance Traganion moquinii (see habitat B1.6c). Large parts of the Mediterranean dunes are disturbed or completely destroyed by human pressure such as tourism activities, coastal urbanisation and industry.
Indicators for good quality:
Undisturbed, discrete coastal dune zonation (spatial succession pattern)
Sparse vegetation cover ≥ 20%
No presence of alien or ruderal species

Characteristic species:
Flora: Elymus farctus (=Agropyron junceum), Ammophila arenaria, Androcymbium psammophilum, Anthemis maritima, Anthemis tomentosa, Calystegia soldanella, Convolvulus caput-medusae, Cutandia maritima, Cyperus capitatus, Echinophora spinosa, Eryngium maritimum, Euphorbia paralias, Chamaesyce peplis (=Euphorbia peplis), Honkenya peploides, Leymus arenarius, Medicago marina, Ononis natrix, Otanthus maritimus, Pancratium maritimum, Polycarpaea nivea, Polygonum maritimum, Sporobolus pungens, Zygophyllum fontanesii.

Classification:
EUNIS:
B1.3 Shifting coastal dunes
EuroVegChecklist:
Ammophilion Br.-Bl. 1921
Elymion gigantei Morariu 1957
Annex I:
2110 Embryonic shifting dunes
2120 Shifting dunes along the shoreline with Ammophila arenaria ('white dunes')
Emerald:
B1.3 Shifting coastal dunes
MAES-2:
Sparsely vegetated land
IUCN:
13.3 Coastal Sand Dunes

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type is more or less restricted to the Mediterranean and Black Sea biogeographic regions. Some outstanding examples of typical characteristics of the Mediterranean biogeographic region could be highlighted such as the Sites of Community Importance Foce Trigno-Marina di Petacciato and  Foce Saccione-Bonifica Ramitelli (Molise region, Italy), the Tróia Peninsula in Portugal, the sand dune systems in Zacharo and Strofylia (Western Peloponnisos, Greece) and dunes in Korfu island (Korission lagoon) in Greece. As far as the Black Sea biogeographic region concerns, Durankulak and Shabla Lake in Bulgaria could be mentioned.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, with data gaps in Croatia, Montenegro, Albania. Data sources: EVA, ART17.

Trends in Quantity:
The habitat has declined in quantity 20.8% over the past 50 years. Along the coasts of France, Croatia and Black Sea (Bulgaria and Romania) the habitat experienced a slight decrease (10%), while a higher negative trend has been recorded for the other countries (up to 40%). In recent years the habitat has been influenced by human trampling and by the mechanical levelling of sand dunes, which cause a reduction in extent and quality of the habitat. Moreover, it was conspicuously replaced by artificial areas. Since 50-250 years ago about 24.72% of the potential area has been lost according to data provided only from Italy, Spain and Black Sea countries. This negative trend is expected to continue in the near future with a predicted average decrease of 8.82%, however, trends have not been indicated for all countries. The recent, future and historical trends have been calculated on the basis of the available territorial data (km2). These data are referred to different years, but we assume that the habitat area is the same in the year of reference as in the year where the data was provided.

Trends in Quality:
The damage in quality affects important areas especially in France, Italy, Spain and Bulgaria. In other countries the degraded area is lower, but the severity of degradation is even so moderate-severe. The average degraded area in the last 50 years is 47.21% with a severity of 66.81%, as has been calculated from territorial data in a 1-5 scale (from stable-slight to severe). The maximum calculated from reported ranges in trends, exceeds 50% extent. The trends in quality have been calculated on the basis of the available territorial data (km2). These data are referred to different years, but we assume that the habitat area is the same in the year of reference as in the year where the data was provided.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Ca. 99% of the habitat type is within the EU 28. The habitat is least represented outside the EU28.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is widespread in the Mediterranean and in the Black sea, occurring in long, linear araes. Outside Europe this habitat is also present in the Mediterranean north Africa and Asian countries.

Pressures and Threats:
The habitat is threatened in both the Mediterranean and Black Sea biogeographic regions. Human pressure is the main threat: coastal urbanization, coastal recreational activities (tourism) and in some cases, coastal erosion. In the last 60 years the composition and structure of this typical coastal dune habitat have been drastically modified. In particular, the habitat has been influenced by human trampling and by the mechanical levelling of sand dunes, which cause a reduction in extent and quality of the habitat. Moreover, it was conspicuously replaced by artificial areas (mainly structures related to tourism, recreational activities and in some cases industries), by agriculture or woody plantation such as Pinus afforestations, or simply replaced by the sea in areas with strong coastal erosion. In some countries invasive non-native species such as Carpobrotus acinaciformis or C. edulis represent an important threat.

Conservation and Management:
Legal protection of habitats and species is still needed. In particular, a general legislation to prevent construction of new infrastructures at expense of this habitat should be shared by all the EU countries. Moreover, establishing new protected areas/sites and restoring degraded coastal areas are also important. However, in many cases just the simple delimitation of the shifting dunes could be an efficient deterrent to avoid trampling. Finally, urban and industrial waste management should be regulated. Special attention should be paid to the mechanical cleaning of beaches which could also affect this habitat negatively.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
2110: BLS U2, CON U2, MAC U2, MED U2
2120: BLS U1, CON U2, MAC FV, MED U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat could recover without specific actions in few decades but it depends on: a) the coastal area should be stable or in accretion (regular supplies of sand are needed for some characteristic species, psammophytes such as Ammophila arenaria, b) natural sources of propagules are also needed. If the former conditions are met and the dune morphology is still relatively well preserved, the habitat could recover naturally. However, for natural recover enclosures are highly recommended. When the habitat is severely damaged, human intervention could be suggested, such as planting Ammophila arenaria and /or Elymus farctus but using regionally collected plant material in order to prevent genetic pollution.

Summary:
This habitat comprises the primary, shifting (so-called 'white') dunes of dynamic coastal sands around the Black and Mediterranean seas, and into the Atlantic around SW Iberia and  Macaronesia. Early pioneers upshore from the strandline catch sand blown from the beach and initiate embryo dune development, stages which may come and go with subserquent storms, or continue to build higher mobile white dunes that move inland. Except in Macaronesia, the dominant plant in the middle to later stages is Ammophila arenaria (ssp. arundinacea in the Mediterranean), and the associated flora on the permeable, impoverished sands is limited and sparse. Coastal tourism, urbanisation and industrial development have totally destroyed the habitat in much of the Mediterranean but, with maintenance of the dynamic natural environment, it is resilient.

References:
Acosta, A. and Ercole, S. 2015. Gli habitat delle coste sabbiose italiane: ecologia e problematiche di conservazione. ISPRA Serie Rapporti 215/2015.
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R. and Zivkovic, L. 2009. Manuale Italiano di interpretazione degli habitat della Direttiva 92/43/CEE (Italian Interpretation Manual of the 92/43/EEC Directive Habitats). Available at: http://vnr.unipg.it/habitat/index.jsp.
Costa, J., Lousa, M., Capelo, J., Espirito-Santo, M., Sevillano, J. and Arsenio, P. 2000. The coastal vegetation of the Portuguese divisory sector: dunes, cliffs and low scrub communities. Finnistera 35 (69): 69-93.
Dimopoulos, P., Bergmeier, E. and Fischer, P. 2006. Natura 2000 Habitat Types of Greece evaluated in the light of distribution, threat and responsibility. Biology and Environment 106B (3): 175-187.
EEA (European Environment Agency). 2009. Article 17 - Reporting under Habitats Directive. Available at: http://forum.eionet.europa.eu/x_habitat-art17report/library/datasheets/habitats/.
Gracia, F.J. 2009. 2120 Dunas móviles de litoral con Ammophila arenaria (dunas blancas). In: VV.AA., Bases ecológicas preliminares para la conservación de los tipos de hábitat de interés comunitario en España. Madrid: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino. 48 pp.
Lavrentiades, G.J. 1964. The ammophilous vegetation of the western Peloponnesos coasts. Vegetatio 12(3-4): 223-287.
Malavasi, M., Santoro, R., Cutini, M., Acosta, A. and Carranza, M. 2013. What has happened to coastal dunes in the last half century? A multitemporal coastal landscape analysis in Central Italy. Landscape and Urban Planning 11: 954-963.
Prisco, I., Acosta, A.T.R. and Ercole, S. 2012. An overview of Italian coastal dune EU habitats. Annali di Botanica 2: 39-48.
Santos, A. 1983. Vegetación y flora de La Palma. Interinsular Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
Sýkora, K., Babalonas, D. and Papastergiadou, E. 2003. Strandline and sand-dune vegetation of coasts of Greece and of some other Aegean countries. Phytocoenologia 33 (2-3): 409-446.
Tzonev, R., Dimitrov, M. and Roussakova, V. 2005. Dune vegetation of Bulgarian Black Sea coast. Hacquetia 4 (1): 7-32.

Criterion A Text:
The recent, future and historical trends have been calculated on the basis of the available territorial data (km2). These data are referred to different years, and it is assumed that the habitat area is the same in the year of reference as in the year where the data was provided. The percentage of area declining in extent over the past 50 years (Criterion A1) is about 21%. This habitat has suffered historically a larger reduction in quantity due to human pressure, especially in Italy and Spain. The average historical reduction in quantity (since 0-250 years ago) was estimated at about 25% (Criterion A3). The estimated future reduction in extent over the next 50 years period (Criterion A2a) is about 8.8%. Thus, the habitat is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
The extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO) are above the thresholds. However, the Criteria B1a/B2a are met because there is an ongoing continuing decline in biotic (ii) and abiotic (iii) quality. It is likely that the main threats affecting this habitat (e.g. human pressure, recreational activity and coastal erosion) will cause continuing declines within the next 20 years. The number of locations has not been calculated but it is probably very large. Thus, this habitat is assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The trends in quality have been calculated on the basis of the available territorial data (km2). These data are referred to different years, but we assume that the habitat area is the same in the year of reference as in the year where the data was provided. There is only data available for Criterion C/D1. Based on the territorial data provided, the reduction in quality over the last 50 years on average affected about 47% of the current area, with a relative severity of degradation of about 68%, both for EU28 and EU28+. The reduction was in both biotic and abiotic quality. However, when using the maximum of the provided ranges in territorial data, more than 50% of the habitat is affected negatively, resulting in the category Vulnerable (VU) for criterion C/D1. Based on expert assessment this category is considered most applicable to this white dune type.

Synthesis:
The habitat has experienced a substantial reduction in abiotic and biotic quality over the last 50 years, affecting 47% (average) to 52% (maximum) of the extent of the habitat, with about 67% relative severity. The figures are on the edge of the categories Near Threatend and Vulnerable, but it is assessed by expert knowledge that this habitat should be considered Vulnerable (VU) under Criterion C/D1, both at the EU28 and the EU28+ levels.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat is relatively homogeneous within the Mediterranean region and also within the Black Sea region, but it has different species between these regions. Therefore, sub-habitats for these regions may be considered.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: M. Panitsa
Territorial data: Z. Barina, F. Bioret, J.A. Campos, J. Capelo, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo, M. Fagaras, I. Prisco, Z. Škvorc, R. Tzonev
Working Group Coastal: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, H. Gardfjell, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, R. Tzonev


Habitat Description:
This type of grasslands occurs in the alpine or subalpine belts of the high mountains of the nemoral zone, being best developed in the Alps but occurring also in boreal Scotland and Scandinavia, in the Carpathians and Pyrenees, and with small fragmentary stands also in the Sudetes. The cover of these grasslands varies considerably between 20 and 100%, depending mainly on soil depth (deeper soils usually support denser vegetation). The dominant species are graminoids such as Sesleria caerulea, S. bielzii, S. tatrae, Carex austroalpina, C. ferruginea, C. firma, C. sempervirens, Festuca versicolor or Kobresia myosuroides. In the matrix of graminoids numerous non-graminoid herbs occur. On south-facing slopes in the subalpine belt, mountain calcicolous species can be mixed with some species of lowland dry grasslands such as Carex humilis. In general, these grasslands are rich in species and colorful at the peak of the growing season. They occur on limestone or dolomite slopes and ridges, most typically on shallow soils of the Rendzic Leptosol type. On steeper slopes these soils are affected by solifluction. Tussocks of the dominating graminoids can act as small dams that prevent downslope movement of fine soil particles, which results in a stairway-like appearance of these grasslands with fine-scale mosaic of patches with soil erosion and accumulation. Calcareous grasslands above the timberline are natural vegetation, occasionally used as summer pastures. Below the timberline, these grasslands occur either as natural vegetation on steep slopes and rock outcrops, or as secondary vegetation of mountain pastures at the sites of potential spruce, larch or beech forests.
Indicators of good quality:
Calcareous grasslands above the timberline are natural vegetation which is generally rather stable. In some places it is disturbed by tourism, e.g. trampling, skiing or building touristic infrastructure, but these negative effects tend to be rather localized. More endangered are the calcareous grasslands below the timberline, which were traditionally grazed by cattle but are currently being abandoned and overgrow by shrubs and trees.
The following characteristics can be considered as indicators of good quality:
·        High species richness.
·        No encroachment of trees and shrubs.
·        No spread of tall-growing herb species after abandonment of grazing.
·        In the subalpine belt, continuation of traditional management by grazing.
·        Absence of overgrazing that would strongly reduce grassland cover or disturb the soil.
·        No signs of disturbance by trampling, skiing or construction works.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Achillea clavenae, Acinos alpinus, Alchemilla hoppeana, Androsace chamaejasme, A. villosa, Anthyllis vulneraria, Aster alpinus, A. bellidiastrum, Astragalus alpinus, A. frigidus, A. penduliflorus, Bartsia alpina, Betonica alopecuros, Biscutella laevigata, Calamagrostis varia, Callianthemum kernerianum, Campanula scheuchzeri, C. thyrsoides, Carex austroalpina, C. baldensis, C. ferruginea, C. firma, C. mucronata, C. ornithopoda, C. sempervirens, Coeloglossum viride, Draba aizoides, Dryas octopetala, Festuca versicolor, Galium anisophyllon, Gentiana clusii, G. verna, Globularia cordifolia, G. nudicaulis, Helianthemum nummularium subsp. grandiflorum, Helianthemum oelandicum subsp. alpestre, Hieracium villosum, Homogyne discolor, Juncus monanthos, Kobresia myosuroides, Leontopodium alpinum, Minuartia langii, Nigritella nigra, N. rubra, Onobrychis montana, Oxytropis campestris, O. carpatica, O. halleri, Pedicularis foliosa, P. rostratocapitata, P. rostratospicata, Phyteuma orbiculare, P. sieberii, Primula clusiana, P. wulfeniana, Pulsatilla alpina subsp. alpina, Ranunculus hybridus, R. thora, Rhinanthus glacialis, Saussurea alpina, S. pygmaea, Saxifraga caesia, paniculata, Scabiosa columbaria, Scorzonera rosea, Selaginella selaginoides, Senecio abrotanifolius, Senecio doronicum, Sesleria bielzii, S. caerulea, S. tatrae, Thesium alpinun, Veronica aphylla, V. fruticans, Viola jooi.
Bryophytes: Plagiochila porelloides, Polytrichum alpinum, Rhytidium rugosum, Tortella tortuosa
Lichens: Cetraria islandica

Classification:
EUNIS:
E4.4 Calciphilous alpine and subalpine grasslands
EuroVegChecklist:
Oxytropido-Elynion myosuroidis Br.-Bl. 1950    
Festucion versicoloris Krajina 1933
Agrostion alpinae Jeník et al. 1980
Seslerion coeruleae Br.-Bl. in Br.-Bl. et Jenny 1926          
Caricion austroalpinae Sutter 1962        
Caricion ferrugineae G. Br.-Bl. et Br.-Bl. in G. Br.-Bl. 1931           
Caricion firmae Gams 1936        
Seslerio-Asterion alpini HadaÄ ex HadaÄ et al. 1969        
Seslerion tatrae Pawlowski 1935 corr. Klika 1955            
Festuco saxatilis-Seslerion bielzii (Pawlowski et Walas 1949) Coldea 1984            
Laserpitio nestleri-Ranunculion thorae Vigo ex Molero 1981   
Primulion intricatae Br.-Bl. ex Vigo 1972             
Armerion cantabricae Rivas-Mart. et al. 1984   
Annex 1:
6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands
Emerald:
E4.4 Calcareous alpine and subalpine grassland
MAES-2:
Grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This type of grasslands is widely distributed in the alpine or subalpine belts of the high mountains of the nemoral zone, being best developed in the Alps but occurring also in Scotland, Scandinavia, the Carpathians and Pyrenees, with small fragmentary stands also in the Sudetes.

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, with likely data gaps in Norway and the Czech republic. Data sources: EVA, ART17.

Comment EU28+:
no data from Sweden, Greece, Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, Serbia, Norway

Trends in Quantity:
Average Trend EU28: -3.7% over the last 50 years
Average Trend EU28+: -5.4% over the last 50 years
The surface of the habitat type was probably maximum around 1850 and since then has been steadily decreasing up to now. Over the last 50 years a relative loss of area of 3.7% and 5.4%, respectively has been reported for EU28 and EU28+ countries. Whereas the area remained more or less stable in Italy, Spain, U.K., Czech Republic or Slovenia, a more serious decline has occurred in Germany, Slovakia and Switzerland. Habitats above the timberline remained more or less stable, but secondary habitats in the subalpine zone were subjected to biocenotic evolution after abandonment of grazing. At a local scale, the loss of habitats was also related to destruction of sites due to construction of skiing complexes.  According to the provided national data an ongoing decline looks set to continue in the future due to ongoing abandonment of land-use in the subalpine zone and local overgrazing in easily accessible areas.

Trends in Quality:
The extent of degradation 20.4% with a severity of degradation of 30.0% in EU28 and 21.4% with 32.4% severity in EU28+. Most of the countries reported a slight decrease in quality over the last 50 years. The degradation was mainly related to biocenotic evolution due to abandonment of grazing practices in the subalpine zone. Furthermore, in some areas overgrazing is also associated with degradation of this habitat type. An ongoing degradation of quality indicators looks set to continue in the future due to the effects of climate change.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
80%. Outside the EU28 the habitat type is primarily found in Switzerland.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO is larger than 50.000 km2. The habitat type is widespread in the alpine biogeographic zone.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat type has large occurences in the subalpine and alpine zone of nemoral mountain regions and the underlying factors for the occurrence of the habitat are not restricted to a limited area or range. The EOO is larger than 50000 km².

Pressures and Threats:
As these grasslands are temperature dependent, a major threat comes from changes of abiotic conditions and species composition due to climate change. Further major threats are related to outdoor sports and leisure activities (e. g. mountaineering) as well as sport and leisure structures, primarily construction of skiing complexes. Especially on easy-to-reach and easy-to-manage sites, the habitats are affected by overgrazing, whereas in the subalpine zone they are frequently affected by biocoenotic evolution due to abandonment of traditional land-use practices.

Conservation and Management:
To delimit both overgrazing in easily accessible areas and prevent biocoenotic evolution due to cessation of land-use in heavily accessible areas of the subalpine zone it is necessary to develop suitable management strategies. This can probably be achieved best in protected areas. To avoid an ongoing loss of habitats due to construction of skiing complexes and transportation corridors further protected areas have to be established in ecologically sensitive areas.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
6170: ALP U1, ATL U2, CON U1, MED U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Calcareous grasslands above the timberline are natural vegetation. Once destroyed or severely damaged (e. g. due to construction of skiing complexes), the recovery of the habitat type by natural succession processes will take a very long time. Semi-natural habitats of the subalpine zone with modified species composition due to abandonment of traditional land-use practices need human intervention for restoration. This can be achieved by re-introducing of traditional pastoral systems.

Summary:
These grasslands occur on shallow, highly calcareous soils on limestone or dolomite slopes and ridges in the alpine or subalpine belts of the high mountains of the nemoral zone, being best developed in the Alps, but occurring also in the Carpathians and Pyrenees, with small fragmentary stands also in the Sudetes and in Scotland. Grasses and sedges dominate, along with numerous small herbs, the cover varying from sparse to complete according to the soil depth. Major pressures are related to changes of abiotic conditions due to climate change, overgrazing as well as abandonment of grazing and outdoor sports and leisure activities, such as mountaineering and the construction of skiing complexes. Over recent historic time, only a slight decrease in both extent and quality have been recorded. The development of suitable management strategies is the key factor for the maintenance of a good conservation status, limiting grazing to the traditional low levels in easily accessible areas and so preventing changes in the vegetation. This can be achieved best in protected areas. Once destroyed or severely damaged the recovery of the habitat type by natural processes will take a very long time.

References:
Coldea, G. (ed.). 1997. Les associations végétales de Roumanie. Tome 1. Les associations herbacées naturelles. Presses Universitaires, Cluj.
Grabherr, G. and Mucina, L. (eds.). 1993. Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs. Teil II. Natürliche waldfreie Vegetation. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena.
Kliment, J. and ValachoviÄ, M. (Eds.). 2007. Rastlinné spoloÄenstvá Slovenska 4. Vysokohorská vegetácia. Veda, Bratislava.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets. The calculated trend in the last 50 years is a reduction of about 3.7% (EU28) and 5.4% (EU28+), resulting in category Least Concern. No data (%) available or unsufficient data for A2a, A2b and A3.

Synthesis:
Despite missing data from Sweden, Norway and some non-EU28 Balkan states, the available data seem to reflect the pan-European situation well. The calculated decreases in quantity and quality are well below the thresholds to qualify for Near Threatened category. The geographic distribution is not restricted (EOO ≥ 50000 km², AOO ≥ 50). The overall red list category is Least Concern.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Subalpine types may require further examination as they are heavily affected by abandonment of grazing.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: M. Chytrý
Territorial data: S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, A. B. G. Averis, A. M. Averis, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, R. Delarze, P. Finck, M. Janišová, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, M. KoÄí, J.Loidi, A. Mikolajczak, P. Perrin, U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Ssymank
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Capelo, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminee, R. Tzonev
Further contributors: F. Essl


Habitat Type Name:
E4.4b Alpine and subalpine calcareous grassland of the Balkan and Apennines

Habitat Description:
These habitats built by many alpine plant species have been a source for fodder during summer period. Grasslands can be divided into two main groups: grasslands over calcareous and acid bedrock. They are further divided into two groups according to altitude: one is of primary origin that appears above the timberline, where site conditions are too severe for woody species to grow. The other is secondary and developed in the subalpine vegetation belt, where the forest surfaces were deforested and transformed into pastures and the timberline was lowered for somewhere 300-500 meters. But it is very difficult to draw the line between the primary and secondary grasslands and they often overlap. The subalpine grasslands extend at altitude between 1650 and 2250 m and the alpine ones are above them. Geographically subalpine and alpine grasslands are divided into two orders, Seslerietalia tenuifoliae, comprising alpine and subalpine grasslands of the northern Balkan and Apennines, and Onobrychido-Seslerietalia, comprising those of central and southern Balkans. In the alpine vegetation belt we can find the vegetation alliances Seslerio juncifoliae-Caricion firmae on the northern Dinarides, Seslerion apeninae on the Apennines, Oxytropion dinaricae on southern Dinarides and Anthyllido-Seslerion klastersky in the central part of the Balkans. In the subalpine belt we can find Seslerion apeninne in the Apennines, Seslerion juncifoliae on wind exposed slopes and Festucion pungentis in sheltered sites in Dinarides and Festuco-Knaution longifoliae in Serbia, Festucion xanthinae in the southern Dinarides, Campanulion albanicae in Montenegro and Kosovo and Seslerion nitidae in the central part of the Balkans. But the division between alpine and subalpine is not fixed as alpine communities can appear in the subalpine and even in montane vegetation belt in exposed sites and vice versa in sheltered sites. At the same time, the subalpine communities are well differentiated by the presence of species from dry grasslands that appear in those communities.
Indicators of good quality:
Grasslands in the alpine zone are of primary origin and do not undergo the natural process of afforestation. The only threat is the abandonment of grazing that may change the species composition. It is also expected that global warming will raise the timberline and, therefore, the vegetation zones will shift upwards, however mountains are generally not high enough to allow such an altitudinal shift on the long term.
In the subalpine zone, the situation is much more complicated. With the abandonment of grazing the afforestation process begins. This process is due to severe site condition slower than in lowland, but we can expect that we will lose a great part of subalpine grasslands in the near future.
The following characteristics may be considered as indicators of good quality:
-                  species richness of the grasslands and presence of diagnostic species,
-                  presence of regular grazing (overgrazing can appear near to the stable),
-                  absence of afforestation, absence of high tall herb, shrub and tree species.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants: Achillea holosericea, Acinos alpinus, Aethionema saxatile, Anthylis aurea subsp. multifoliata, Asperula aristata, Asplenium fissum, Aster alpinus, Astragallus mayeri, Asyneuma limonifolia, Biscutella laevigata, Carex laevis, Centaurea triumfetti, Dianthus integer, Dianthus sylvestris subsp. longicaulis, Draba aizoides, Draba lasiocarpa, Edrianthus horvatii, Fritillaria tenella, Galium oreophyllum, Geranium subcaulescens var. rupestris, Helianthemum canum, Helianthemum nummularium subsp. grandiflorum, Hieracium pannosum, Iberis sempervirens, Juniperus nana, Leontodon crispus, Linum alpinum, Linum capitatum, Minuartia collina /verna, Oxytropis campestris (=O. dinarica), Oxytropis neglecta, Oxytropis purpurea, Pedicularis comosa, Pedicularis verticillata, Peucedanum schottii, Phyteuma orbicularae, Plantago argentea, Polygala alpestris, Polygala comosa, Potentilla crantzii, Pulsatilla alpina, Ranunculus breyninus, Satureja pysidica, Senecio procera, Sesleria juncifolia, Sesleria nitida, Sideritis roeseri, Teucrium montanum, Thalictrum minus, Thymus ciliatipubescens, Thymus praecox subsp. polytrichus, Trinia dalechampii.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E4.4 Calciphilous alpine and subalpine grasslands
EuroVegChecklist:
Seslerietalia tenuifoliae Horvat 1930
Seslerion tenuifoliae Horvat 1930
Seslerio juncifoliae-Caricion firmae TrinajstiÄ‡ 2005
Festucion pungentis Horvat 1930
Festuco-Knaution longifoliae JovanoviÄ‡-DunjiÄ‡ 1955
Seslerion apenninae Bruno et Furnari 1966
Onobrychido-Seslerietalia Horvat 1960 (southern Balkan):
Oxytropidion dinaricae LakušiÄ‡ 1966
Anthyllido-Seslerion klasterskyi Simon 1958
Seslerio-Festucion xanthinae Horvat in Horvat et al. 1974
Festucion xanthinae LakušiÄ‡ et al. 1969
Seslerion nitidae Horvat 1936
Campanulion albanicae LakušiÄ‡ 1966
Annex 1:
6170 Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands
Emerald:
E4.4 Calcareous alpine and subalpine grassland
MAES-2:
Grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat type is not an outstanding example of typical characteristics of any biogeographic region (neither Alpine nor Mediterranean).

Map Description:
Map is rather complete for EU28, but has data gaps on the Balkan. Data sources: EVA, ART17.

Comment EU28+:
no data from Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro and Serbia

Trends in Quantity:
Average Trend EU28: -5.8% over the last ~50 years
Average Trend EU28+: -10.4% over the last ~50 years
Over the last 50 years an average decrease in area of about 6% and 10%, respectively, has been reported both for EU28 and EU28+ countries. Whereas the habitat type remained stable in Croatia and Slovenia, a decrease in area between 5% and 10% was reported by other countries. The loss of area was mainly related to biocenotic evolution (invasion of shrubs and trees) due to abandonment of traditional land-use practices (grazing) in the subalpine zone. According to the provided national data, an ongoing decline looks set to continue in the future.

Trends in Quality:
Several EU28 and EU28+ countries have reported a slight or moderate decrease in quality over the last 50 years, which was mainly related to climate change and successional processes due to abandonment of land-use practices. Furthermore, degradation was also related to leisure activities and tourism. The extent of degradation is 21.1% in EU28 with 22.7% severity of degradation and 15.1% in EU28+ with 45.4% severity of degradation.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Approximately 30%. Major occurences outside EU28 are on the Balkan peninsula.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO is larger than 50000 km². The habitat is widespread in the subalpine and alpine zone of the Appennine Mountains and the Balkan peninsula.

Justification of Restricted Area:
Though the habitat type only occurs in the Balkan and Apennines, it neither has a very limited area and range nor is restricted to small spots.

Pressures and Threats:
Grasslands of the alpine zone are primary habitats, that do not undergo the process of biocenotic evolution after the abandonment of grazing. The major threat is caused by changes of abiotic conditions due to global warming. It is expected, that global warming will raise the timberline and therefore, the vegetation zone will shift upwards. In the subalpine zone, the situation is much more complicated. With the abandonment of pastoral systems, the process of succession begins and degradation is caused by the invasion of tall herbs, shrubs and trees. Furthermore, the habitat is negatively affected by outdoor sports and leisure activities both in the subalpine and alpine zone.

Conservation and Management:
Establishment of protected sites, legal protection of habitats and species and management of landscape features by resuming traditional pastoral systems are the key factors for maintaining these grasslands. To avoid ongoing degradation it is necessary to regulate the exploitation of natural resources, e. g. by touristic activities.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
6170: ALP U1, CON U1, MED U1

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Once destroyed or severely damaged, the recovery of primary habitats by natural regeneration processes will take a very long time. Semi-natural habitats with modified species composition affected by successional processes are in need of human intervention for their restoration. This can be achieved by re-introduction of traditional pastoral systems.

Summary:
This grass-dominated habitat of high mountains in the Balkans and Appenines includes both primary vegetation above the tree-line but also secondary grasslands maintained by grazing at lower altitudes.  The main threats are changes of abiotic conditions due to global warming, biocenotic evolution due to abandonment of pastoral systems in the subalpine zone as well as outdoor sports and leisure activities. Overall, there has been a slight decrease in extent but changes in quality vary from slight to severe. For conservation, the establishment of additional protected areas and the resumption of traditional pastoral systems, especially in the subalpine zone, is required. Once destroyed or severely damaged the recovery of the habitat type by natural processes will take a very long time.

References:
Lancioni, A., Facchi, J. and Taffetani, F. 2011. Syntaxonomical analysis of Kobresio myosuroidis-Seslerietea caerulea and Carici rupestris-Kobresietea bellardii classes in central southern Apennines. Fitosociologia 48(1): 3-21.
Micevski, K. 1994. Visokoplaninskata vegetacija na planinata Bistra. MANU, Skopje.
RedÅ¾iÄ‡, S. 2011. The syntaxonomy and syngenesis of the Elyno-Seslerietea Br.-Bl. 1948 in the Balkan Peninsula. Annali di Botanica 3: 55-76.
Roussakova, V. 2000. Végétation alpine et sous alpine superior de la montagne de Rila (Bulgarie). Braun-Blanquetia 25: 3-125.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 were calculated using the territorial data sheets. The calculated trend in the last 50 years is a reduction of about 5.8% (EU28) and 10.4% (EU28+), respectively (resulting in category Least Concern). No data available or unsufficient data for applying the Criteria A2a, A2b and A3.

Criterion B Text:
No data have been provided for EOO and AOO until now; however, on the ground of the known habitat occurrence, EOO and AOO exceed the thresholds for Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The values for C/D1 were calculated using the territorial data sheets. The calculated figures result in a Least Concern (LC) category. No reliable data available for applying the other Criteria based on qualitative reduction.

Synthesis:
Although territorial data were not provided for all EU28+ countries, the available data seem to give a reliable overview of the overall situation. The calculated decreases in quantity and quality are well below the thresholds to qualify this habitat type as Near Threatened, though a relative severity of degradation of 45.4% was calculated for EU28+ countries. Hence, based on the application of the Red List Criteria, it qualifies for a Least Concern (LC) status both for EU28 as well as EU28+.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
Subalpine subtypes are in need of further examination.

Contributors:
Habitat definition: A. ÄŒarni
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, F. Attorre, C. Bita-Nicolae, A. ÄŒarni,  L. Casella, P. Dimopoulos, G. Giusso Del Galdo, D. Gigante, N. Juvan, C. Marcenò, V. Matevski, D. MilanoviÄ‡, F. Millaku, G.Pezzi, V. Rusakova, Å½. Škvorc, D. Viciani
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Capelo, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminee, R. Tzonev
Further contributors: F. Essl


Habitat Type Name:
B3.1c Macaronesian rocky sea cliff and shore

Habitat Description:
This habitat comprises the rocky sea cliffs of the Macaronesian islands, which are formed by a narrow strip of lava bedrock (basalt) that is influenced by salt spray from the sea. Some of the Macaronesian coastal cliffs are among the highest sea cliffs in Europe and the world, like the Cliffs of the Giants along the western coast of Tenerife, with vertical walls reaching 500 meters above sea level, and the cliffs of Gabo Girao in Madeira, reaching a height of 540 m above sea level. The habitat refers to the area that is still under influence of the sea (waves, salt spray and strong wind), but above the mean high tide (supralittoral). The sea cliffs of the Macaronesian islands differ from those of the temperate Atlantic coast and the Mediterranean coast due to the dominance of a set of Macaronesian endemic species. The cliffs of the different island groups also show a diversity in species composition, which is expressed in three alliances of the class Crithmo-Limonietea: Frankenio-Astydamion of the Canary island, Helichrysion obconico-devium of the Madeiran archipelago and Euphorbio azoricae-Festucion petraeae on the Azores. In the Canary islands, the most characteristic species of sea cliffs are Astydamia latifolia and several endemic species of Limonium. Species that are also found at Atlantic and/or Mediterranean sea cliffs are Crithmum maritimum, Plantago coronopus, Frankenia laevis, Frankenia pulverulenta, and Asplenium marinum. Additional characteristic species which are restricted to the Canary islands are Plantago aschersonii, Lotus glaucus, Argyranthemum frutescens, Frankenia ericifolia, Atractylis preauxiana, Reichardia crystallina and Reichardia ligulata. The characteristic Limonium species are often restricted to only one or two islands, like Limonium imbricatum (La Palma, Tenerife), Limonium fruticans (Tenerife), Limonium macrophyllum (Tenerife, Gran Canaria) and Limonium brassicifolium (El Hierro, La Gomera). Limonium pectinatum (including L. humboldtii) is a more widespread species of coastal cliffs, found on most of the Canary Islands and also on Selvagens. Limonium papillatum is found on coastal cliffs of Lanzarote and Fuertaventura, but also on the smaller islands Alegranza, La Graciosa, Lobos and Selvagens. On Madeira the endemic shrubs Helichrysum  obconium and Helichrysum devium form different plant communities of coastal cliffs. Other characteristic species are Lotus glaucus, the endemic Limonium pyramidatum, Crithmum maritimum, Lotus loweanus, Frankenia laevis and Plantago coronopus. In the Azores, the most characteristic species are the endemics Azorina vidali, Daucus carota subsp. azorica, Euphorbia azorica, Festuca petraea, Myosotis maritima, Solidago sempervirens subsp. azorica and Spergularia azorica. Juncus acutus grows on littoral lava bed depressions that are temporarily submerged in sea water, but also on rocky shores. Like in other coastal regions in the Macaronesian archipelagos, an altitudinal gradient with different zones may be distinguished within the cliff habitat, from the supralittoral belt to the cliff top, with algae and lichens on the lowest parts and transitions towards succulent vegetation and thicket on the higher cliffs. Additionally, in the Macaronesian archipelagos coastal cliffs and small islands form important nesting sites to pelagic and coastal seabirds, especially where these are inaccessible to predators and undisturbed by human or animals (e.g. no grazing). Important birds of the Macaronesian coastal cliffs are several species of Petrels and Shearwaters.
Indicators of good quality:
• No human or animal disturbance (e.g. no grazing)
• Presence of sea bird colonies
• Presence of characteristic zonation belts
• Absence of alien plant species (like Mesembryanthemum sp., Carpobrotus sp.)
Characteristic species:
Flora: Argyranthemum frutescens, Asplenium marinum, Astydamia latifolia, Atractylis preauxiana, Azorina vidali, Crithmum maritimum, Daucus carota subsp. azoricus, Euphorbia azorica, Festuca petraea, Frankenia ericifolia, Frankenia laevis, Frankenia pulverulenta, Helichrysum devium, Helichrysum obconium, Limonium brassicifolium, Limonium fruticans, Limonium imbricatum, Limonium macrophyllum, Limonium papillatum, Limonium pectinatum (incl. L. humboldtii), Limonium pyramidatum, Lotus glaucus, Lotus glaucus,Lotus loweanus, Myosotis maritima, Plantago aschersonii, Plantago coronopus, Reichardia crystallina,Reichardia ligulata, Solidago sempervirens subsp. azorica, Spergularia azorica
Fauna: Macaronesian Shearwater (Puffinus baroli), Manx Shearwater (Puffinus puffinus), Plain Swift (Apus unicolor), Band-rumped Storm Petrel or Madeiran Storm Petrel (Oceanodroma castro), Bulwer’s Petrel (Bulweria bulwerii), Cory’s Shearwater (Calonectris diomedea), Little Shearwater (Puffinus assimilis), White-faced Storm Petrel (Pelagodroma marina) and Fea’s Petrel (Pterodroma feae), which is only present on Buggio, Desertas Islands.

Classification:
EUNIS:
B3.1 Supralittoral rock (lichen or splash zone)
B3.2 Unvegetated rock cliffs, ledges, shores and islets
B3.3 Rock cliffs, ledges and shores, with angiosperms
EuroVegChecklist:
Frankenio-Astydamion latifoliae Santos 1976
Euphorbio azoricae-Festucion petraeae Lüpnitz 1976
Helichrysion obconico-devium Rivas-Mart. et al. 2002
Annex I:
1250 Vegetated sea cliffs with endemic flora of the Macaronesian coast
Emerald:
B3.3 Rock cliffs, ledges and shores, with angiosperms
MAES-2:
Coastal
IUCN:
12.1. Rocky Shoreline

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat type is composed of many endemic species of the Macaronesian archipelagos.

Trends in Quantity:
The habitat type has experienced a slight decrease of a 5% in extent over the last 50 years due to human disturbances, such as the small paths used by fishers and other people to approach sites such as hidden beaches, as well as rock climbers. In addition, the building of infrastructure such as human settlements, lighthouses or military installations (particularly coastal artillery) has posed an impact to this habitat type.

Trends in Quality:
This habitat type has experienced a decline in quality of about 27% particularly due pollution (waste disposal) and introduction of invasive alien species.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably 100% as it is not documented from the Cabo Verde archipelago.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The habitat has an EOO larger than 50,000 km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat is widespread in the Atlantic archipelagos of Azores, Madeira, Savagens and Canary Islands.

Pressures and Threats:
This type is affected by the common threats of coastal habitats as a result of the pressures of human settlements and the tourism industry. In some of the islands, infrastructure development, particularly through urbanization, reaches the sea cliffs, at least partially. Traditionally, urbanisation was punctual and related to the construction of lighthouses and military resorts (coastal artillery), but now the construction of residential buildings has been enhanced by touristic development and it seems that there will be further developments in the future. The use of paths by fishers, rock climbers and other visitors, as well as other human disturbances have occurred historically and will probably increase in the next future. However, the extent of these disturbances is local and of low impact. A more concerning threat is the increasing appearance of invasive alien species, mostly in the neighbourhoods of human settlements.

Conservation and Management:
Supression of residential building activity in the border of the cliffs, climbing and use of paths for fishing and trekking would be sufficient for effective conservation of this habitat type.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
If the disturbance is trampling, the recovery of this habitat is quick and can be done naturally, but in the cases of buildings it would take much longer and intervention would probably be needed.

Summary:
The rocky cliffs of the Macaronesian islands comprise a narrow strip of basalt lava influenced by salt-spray whose zonation of crevice and ledge vegetation vary on the different island groups of the Canaries, Madiera and the Azores, with endemics providing a highly distinctive aspect to the flora. The habitat also provides important sites for nesting seabords whose guano offers a nutrient-rich surface for colonisation. It is vulnerable to urbanisation, tourism and the invasion of alien plants and conservation needs control of access and development.

References:
Capelo, J.H., Costa, J.C., Jardim, R., Sequeira, M. and Rivas-Martínez, S. 2003. The vegetation of Madeira VIII: Advances on the phytosociological survey of non-nitrophyllous vegetation of the Madeira archipelago. Silva Lusitana 11(2): 256-263.
Prieto, J.A.F., Aguiar, C. and Dias, E. 2012. Description of some new syntaxa from the Azores archipelago. International Journal of Geobotanical Research 2: 111-116.
Santos Guerra, A. 1983. Vegetacion y flora de La Palma. Ed. Interinsular Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

Criterion A Text:
These coastal cliffs are very inaccessible and have suffered little reduction, having experienced a decline of 5% in the last 50 years, estimated by averaging the decline of the habitat in Spain (-1% over 2,27 km2) and the one in Portugal (-7% over 6 Km2). A historical decline of 6% has also been calculated, assuming that the 2% decline that occurred in Spain is also true in Portugal. It is expected that this trend will continue in the future, and an estimate of 5 to 10% decline is expected in the next 50 years according to the territorial experts in Portugal. This trend is expected to be the same for Spain as well. Additionally, a decline of 8% has been calculated for the 50 year time span between 1976 and 2026. The habitat type is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion A.

Criterion B Text:
The EOO and AOO values largely exceed the thresholds for a threatened category, as this habitat is widespread along a wide area in the Macaronesian archipelagos. However, it is experiencing a very slight continuing decline in spatial extent, abiotic and biotic quality of the habitat. It is thus assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The habitat type has seen 27% of his extent affected with a 30% relative severity (moderate reduction). It is thus assessed as Least Concern under Criterion C/D.

Synthesis:
This habitat is assessed as Least Concern as, within Macaronesia, it is widespread and declining trends are small. The low degree of degradation is a result of its intrinsic steepness and, therefore, inaccessibility.

Contributors:
Type description: J. Janssen
Territorial data: M. Del Arco, J. Capelo, D. Espírito-Santo, J. Loidi, O Rodríguez
Working Group Coastal: A. Acosta, F. Bioret, H. Gardfjell, J. Janssen, J. Loidi, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
E1.1d Cryptogam- and annual-dominated vegetation on calcareous and ultramafic rock outcrops

Habitat Description:
This habitat includes low-grown, open herbaceous communities on very shallow, skeletal soils over limestone, dolomite, gypsum, serpentine or other base-rich bedrock types. Short-lived vernal therophytes and succulents are the dominant life forms among the vascular plants. The therophyte synusia is often rich in species, however, it is subject to considerable inter-annual dynamics in total abundance and species composition, which depends on specific weather conditions of each year. Typical therophytes include those of the genera Alyssum, Androsace, Arabis, Arenaria, Cerastium, Erophila, Thlaspi and Veronica. Succulents are represented by various species of Sedum and Sempervivum (including Jovibarba). Geophytes such as Allium are also typical. Perennial grasses and forbs are regularly present in this vegetation, but usually with a low cover.
This habitat is one of the few types in Europe, where non-vascular plants typically reach similar or higher cover and often also higher small-scale species richness than the vascular plants. There are many medium-sized to tiny cushions or lawns of acrocarpous mosses, mainly from the family Pottiaceae. Lichens are represented by several larger lobate or fruticose species, but mainly by soil-covering crusts. These crustose species are often colourful, like Fulgensia spp. (yellow), Psora decipiens (red), Toninia sedifolia (bluish) and Squamarina lentigera (bright white) and form the so-called coloured lichen synusia.
This habitat usually occurs in small patches on rock outcrops or in slightly disturbed places within calcareous grasslands. Disturbance can be by soil erosion on outcrops and steep slopes, by grazing or trampling. The soils are usually very shallow Lithic, Skeletic, Rendzic, Calcaric or Dolomitic Leptosols, developed on various types of limestone, dolomite or gypsum. In some places, especially on the Balkan Peninsula, this vegetation develops also on ultramafic bedrock (serpentines), which are also base-rich, but with an increased amount of Mg2+ rather than Ca2+ cations.
This habitat is distributed from the submediterranean to the hemiboreal zones of Europe. In southern Europe it occurs mainly at higher altitudes, while similar sites at lower altitudes support annual vegetation with different species composition, dominated by Mediterranean annual species. Compared to the rocky grasslands of type E1.1g, which typically cover larger areas on slopes, the stands of E1.1d normally grow in more or less plain patches where the erosion is reduced and thus tiny annuals and cryptogams can survive. While such situations in most parts of Europe occur only as small patches within dry grasslands, the so-called alvars in the hemiboreal zone of Europe (mainly the Swedish islands of Öland and Gotland as well as Western Estonia) display this habitat as landscape-dominating feature, partly extending over many square kilometres as in the Great Alvar of Öland. Here, pre-Cambrian limestone flatrocks that are covered only partly and very thin with fine soil, which is subject to strong frost action in winter, create an extraordinary habitat, rich in specialised species, including even some endemic taxa.
While human land use has slightly increased the spatial extent of this habitat type (through clearing forest and creating artificial rocks, such as wall tops), the majority of stands of E1.1d are natural.
 Indicators of quality:
These grasslands occur at sites disturbed by natural erosion, grazing, or due to human impact such as trampling. Although very frequent or intense disturbance may be detrimental, especially if coupled with nutrient enrichment, slight disturbance is positive because it reduces overgrowing by competitively stronger grasses and herbs. Some occurrences of this habitat, especially those occurring outside rock outcrops or steep slopes, would decline in the absence of disturbance.
The following characteristics can be considered as indicators of good quality:
·      Long-term habitat stability
·      High species richness
·      Occurrence of rare species
·      Dependence on naturally stressful conditions or natural disturbance rather than human-induced disturbance
·      Absence of tall, nutrient-demanding, ruderal and alien species
Characteristic species:
Flora
Vascular plants: Acinos arvensis, Aethionema saxatile, Allium schoenoprasum var. alvarense, Allium sphaerocephalon, Alyssum alyssoides, Androsace elongata, Androsace septentrionalis, Arabidopsis thaliana, Arabis auriculata, Arenaria leptoclados, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Artemisia rupestris, Asperula tenella, Cerastium brachypetalum, Cerastium pumilum, Crepis tectorum subsp. pumila, Erophila spathulata, Erophila verna, Festuca oelandica, Galium oelandicum, Helianthemum oelandicum subsp. oelandicum, Globularia vulgaris, Gypsophila fastigiata, Hieracium x dichotomum, Holosteum umbellatum, Hornungia petraea, Jovibarba globifera, Medicago minima, Minuartia mesogitana, Petrorhagia saxifraga, Poa bulbosa, Poa compressa, Poa perconcinna, Potentilla argentea agg., Potentilla tabernaemontani, Satureja suaveolens, Saxifraga tridactylites, Sedum acre, Sedum album, Sedum sediforme, Sedum sexangulare, Silene uniflora subsp. petraea, Sisymbrium supinum, Taraxacum sect. Erythrosperma, Thlaspi ochroleucum, Thlaspi perfoliatum, Trigonella monspeliaca, Valeriana tuberosa, Valerianella locusta, Veronica arvensis, Veronica praecox.
Bryophytes: Abietinella abietina, Athalamia hyalina, Barbula convoluta, Bryum caespiticium, Bryum elegans, Ceratodon purpureus, Didymodon fallax, Didymodon ferrugineus, Didymodon rigidulus, Distichium capillaceum, Ditrichum flexicaule, Encalypta rhaptocarpa, Encalypta streptocarpa, Encalypta vulgaris, Homalothecium sericeum, Syntrichia ruralis agg., Tortella inclinata, Tortella rigens, Tortella tortuosa, Trichostomum crispulum, Weissia brachycarpa.
Lichens: Bacidia bagliettoana, Cladonia convoluta, Cladonia foliacea, Cladonia furcata, Cladonia pocillum, Cladonia rangiformis, Cladonia symphycarpia, Fulgensia bracteata, Fulgensia fulgens, Leptogium schraderi, Mycobilimbia lurida, Peltigera didactyla, Peltigera rufescens, Psora decipiens, Squamarina cartilaginea, Squamarina lentigera, Toninia sedifolia.

Classification:
EUNIS
E1.1 Pioneer and open perennial grasslands of inland sands and rocky terrain
EuroVegChecklist:
Aethionemion saxatilis Bergmeier et al. 2009
Alysso-Sedion Oberd. et T. Müller in T. Müller 1961
Sedion micrantho-sediformis Rivas-Mart., P. Sánchez et Alcaraz ex P. Sánchez & Alcaraz 1993
Tortello tortuosae-Sedion albi Hallberg ex Dengler & Löbel 2006
Valerianion tuberosae Guinochet 1975
Annex 1:
6110* Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the Alysso-Sedion albi
6280* Nordic alvar and precambrian calcareous flatrocks
Emerald:
E1.11 Euro-Siberian rock debris swards
MAES-2:
grassland
 IUCN:
4.4. Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
While the habitat occurs in tiny patches in most biogeographic regions of Europe, only in the southern part of the Boreal region it is a landscape-dominating feature (the so-called alvars, where the bedrock is at the surface or only few centimetres below).

Map Description:
The map is rather complete, but data gaps exist for the west coast of Sweden, southern Norway, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania. Data sources: Art17, EVA.

Comment EU28:
Provided areas for Sweden and Estonia were clearly too low

Trends in Quantity:
Recent trend EU28: -45% - EU28+: -44% (based on 62% of the total area reported). Long-term trend EU28: -19% - EU28+: -33% (based on 21% of the total area reported). The reliability of the reported long-term trend is low because the calculations are based on only 1/5 of the total territory. For the future, countries assume developments that range from slight increase through stable to moderate further decline.

Trends in Quality:
Within EU28, 58% of the remaining area are degraded with 37% severity. Within EU28+, 57% of the remaining area are degraded with 39% severity.

Pressures and Threats:
As far as the territory of this habitat has been enlarged by clearing of forests and grazing, it suffers from natural succession following abandonment of such traditional pasture systems. To a smaller extent also eutrophication through atmogenic nitrogen input, direct destruction in case of quarries and outdoor sports (rock climbing) can have negative impacts.

Conservation Status:
Annex 1 types:
6110: ALP U1, ATL U1, BLS U1, BOR U1, CON U1, MED U1, PAN U1
6280: BOR U2, CON FV

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Degraded semi-natural (e.g. in former pasture systems) and anthropogenic stands (e.g. wall tops; railway gravel) can be restored by re-installing the former grazing system and/or cutting down woody encroachment inside the habitat and in its surrounding (if it throws shadow on the site).
Natural and and semi-natural sites that have been degraded by quarrying or leisure activities can recover themselves when the negative impact has stopped, but this will take considerable time.

Summary:
These open pioneer grasslands are dominated by perennial succulents and annuals, with subordinate small tussock grasses and herbs, but often with a very prominent and rich contingent of cryptogams. They are typical of very shallow and skeletal, impoverished, base-rich soils on a wide variety of limestones, dolomites, gypsum and sometimes ultramafic bedrocks, and similar artificial habitats like quarry spoil and wall-tops. They are found from the hemiboreal to the submediterranean, occurring mainly at higher altitudes further south, though extensive only in rather particular situations, like the alvar of Swedish islands and Estonia.  Being essentially dependent on environmental stress, the more widespread smaller stands are vulnerable to encroachment around and may depend on extensive grazing or continuing benign disturbance in the wider landscape. Recent historical losses in extent and quality have been widespread.

References:
de Foucault, B. 1999. Nouvelle contribution à une synsystématique des pelouses sèches à thérophytes. Documents Phytosociologiques, N.S. 19: 47-105.
Dengler, J. and Löbel, S. 2006. The basiphilous dry grasslands of shallow, skeletal soils (Alysso-Sedetalia) on the island of Öland (Sweden), in the context of North and Central Europe. Phytocoenologia 36: 343–391.
Dengler, J., Löbel, S. and Boch, S. 2006. Dry grassland communities of shallow, skeletal soils (Sedo-Scleranthenea) in northern Europe. Tuexenia 26: 159–190.
Korneck, D. 1975. Beitrag zur Kenntnis mitteleuropäischer Felsgrus-Gesellschaften (Sedo-Scleranthetalia). – Mitteilungen der Floristisch-Soziologischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft N.F. 18: 45–102.
Moravec, J. 1967. Zu den azidophilen Trockenrasengesellschaften Südwestböhmens und Bemerkungen zur Syntaxonomie der Klasse Sedo-Scleranthetea. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 2: 137–178.

Criterion A Text:
The values for A1 and A3 were calculated from the territorial data sheets, which provided trend data for 21 and 10 countries, for the 50-yr and long-term trend, respectively. However, the long-term trends are based on only about 1/5 of the territory and thus not particularly reliable. The provided data were far too incomplete to allow assessment of A2a and A2b.

Criterion C/D Text:
The data for C/D1 were calculated from the territorial data sheets, which provided assessments for 19 countries. No data were available for C/D2 and C/D3. The degradation of quality refers to both biotic features and abiotic circumstances.

Synthesis:
Based on a short-term reduction in quantity of 44% and 45%, respectively, the habitat type is Vulnerable (VU) both in EU28 and EU28+. Furthermore, a significant reduction in biotic and abiotic quality in the last 50 years results in a Near threatened status (NT).

Contributors:
Habitat definition: M. Chytrý (revised by J. Dengler).
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, C. Bita-Nicolae, J. Bölöni, G. Buffa, J. Capelo, A. ÄŒarni, L. Casella, M. Chytrý, C. Giancola, D. Gigante, G. Giusso del Galdo, R. Delarze, L.M. Delescaille, P. Dimopoulos, D. Espírito-Santo, P. Finck, C. Gussev, A. Jacobson, M. Janišová, J. Janssen, N. Juvan, Z. KÄ…cki, J. Loidi, T. Kontula, C. Marcenò, A. Mikolajczak, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, D. Paternoster, G. Pezzi, V. RašomaviÄius, U. Raths, U. Riecken, J. Rodwell, E. Roosaluste, S. Rusina, Z. Škvorc, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani.
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
E1.1h Heavy-metal dry grassland of the Balkans

Habitat Description:
Ultramafic rocks (e.g. serpentine, ophiolite) form dark-colored soils characterized by high content of heavy metals such as iron, nickel, cobalt and chromium, and a relatively low content of nutrients such as calcium, potassium and phosphorous, as well as by a low ratio of Ca/Mg. Ultramafic soils are also characterized by pronounced fluctuation of temperature, heat and drought because of their dark color, small water capacity and usually low organic matter content. The above-mentioned special properties of ultramafic soils are considered responsible for their low fertility and the specialized vegetation they host. Species growing on ultramafic soils possess a range of adaptations to these severe ecologic conditions, such as nanism, pelosity, shiny surfaces and the ability to hyperaccumulate heavy metals in their tissues. In these habitats grow many relict and endemic species. The largest ultramafic surfaces in Europe are found in the Balkan Peninsula: Bosnia, Serbia, Kosovo, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and Greece.
Indicators of quality:
This habitat depends on ultramafic soil properties but also on the type of land use. Grazing of medium intensity helps the conservation of the floristic composition and the physiognomy of this habitat type. The following characteristics may be considered as indicators of good quality: natural species composition, absence of invasive species as well as of tall herb, shrub and tree species, regular grazing and presence of endemic or specialized species adapted to ultramafic soils.
Characteristic species:
Vascular plants:Achillea pseudopectinata, Allyssum heldreichii, Allyssum montanum subsp.serbicum, Allysum markgrafii, Armeriacanescens, Asplenium adiantum-nigrum subsp. serpentini, Astargalus onobrychis subsp. chlorocarpus, Botriochloa ischaemum, Bromopsis pannonica, Bromopsis erercta, Centaurea grisebachii subsp.occidentalis, Centaurea kosanini, Centaurea stoebe subsp.australis, Convolvulus boissieri subsp. parnassicus, Dianthus giganteus subsp. croaticus, Drymocallis rupestris, Echium rubrum, Erysimum linariifolium, Euphorbia glabriflora, Euphorbia montenegrina, Fumana bonapartei, Gypsophila spergulifolia, Halacsya sendtneri, Haplophyllum boissieranum, Medicago prostrata, Minuartia verna subsp. collina, Noccaea kovatsii, Paragymnopteris marantae, Pistorinia hispanica, Plantago holosteum, Plantago subulata, Poa badensis, Polygonum albanicum, Potentilla astrachanica, Potentilla visianii, Rumex acetosella, Scabiosa leucophylla, Scleranthus perennis, Scrophularia canina subsp. tristis, Sedum hispanicum, Sedum ochroleucum, Sedum serpentini, Sesleria latifolia, Silene armeria, Silene bupleuroides subsp.staticifolia, Stachys recta subsp. baldacii, Stachys scardica, Thymus praecox subsp. jankae, Verbascum glabratum subsp. bosnense.

Classification:
EUNIS:
1.2.Perennial calcareous and basic steppes;
EuroVegChecklist:
Polygonion albanicae Ritter-Studnicka 1970 (incl. Potentillion visiani Ritter-StudniÄka 1970)
Centaureo-Bromion fibrosi Blecic et al. 1969
Alyssion heldreichii Bergmeier et al. 2009
Annex 1:
62B0 Serpentinophilous grassland of Cyprus
Emerald:
-
MAES-2:
Grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
The habitat depends on local soil conditions (physical, chemical and biological properties). It is geographically restricted to the Balkans, where it is distributed in  the Continental and Alpine region. The reported occurrence on Cyprus (Mediterranean region) may have to be distinguished as a separate habitat type or subtype.

Map Description:
The map gives an underestimation of occurrences throughout the range, with a.o. data gaps for Croatia, but potential distribution is provided for part of the Balkan. Data sources: LIT, EVA, BOHN.

Trends in Quantity:
A small decrease in quantity is reported for Bulgaria (<5%), and the habitat area is stable in Cyprus, but no data is known for the rest of the EU countries. The decrease is mostly caused by excavation activities (new quarries) and lesser due to the overgrazing or the abandonment of grazing. In EU28+ a decrease in quantity is reported for Macedionia (5%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (20%) and Albania (3%).

Trends in Quality:
Habitat’s quality in Bulgaria is reported as declining for about 10% with slight severity of degradation, but it is stable in Cyprus, while there are no data for Greece. Habitat’s quality is also declining in Bosnia and Herzegovina (15%), Albania (5%) and FYR Macedonia (10%), but the severity of decline is considered as "slight, low or not". No data exist for Kosovo, Serbia and Montenegro.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Probably not more than 40%. The habitat type is widespread in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina (largest coverage), Kosovo, South Serbia and part of FYR Macedonia, while its extent in other Balkan countries is relatively unknown.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The areas with serpentine rocks are restricted in some areas on the Balkans, but they have not been reduced significantly during the last 50 years.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The serpentine rocks are distributed in many parts of Balkan Peninsula. Their range is limited but in some areas they occupy large territories.

Pressures and Threats:
The most important threats for the habitat are mining and quarrying activities, human habitation, planting of forest plantations, overgrazing or abandonment of grazing that initiates natural succession and thus the invasion of shrub and forest species into the grasslands.

Conservation and Management:
The habitat is characterized by very specific features and it is very rich in local and regional endemic plant species or subspecies. Its conservation status has been assessed only in Cyprus. It is not included in the Annex I of the Habitat’ Directive (except for Cyprus) and thus is not protected in most of the European countries. Legal protection of habitat is necessary all over its distribution range. Therefore, it should be added in the Annex I of Habitats’ Directive and new sites should be designated in conservation networks. Additional measures that can be implemented are the restriction (at least partial) of the creation of new quarries and mines in the habitat’s areas and the proper management of grazing activities.

Conservation Status:
Annex I type
CS: Range Area S&F FP Overall MED 62B0 FV

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
The habitat does have limited and slow capacity to recover naturally or through intervention because it depends on natural geological and geomorphological processes

Summary:
This highly specialised habitat confined to nutrient-poor soils rich in heavy metals derived from ultramafic rocks in the mountains of the Balkans and Cyprus comprises open grasslands with rich mixtures of grasses and forbs, including many endemics. Vulnerable to quarrying and mining and, where grazing has helped maintain the open cover, to reduction in grazing, it has declined in extent and quality over parts of its range but the current situation elsewhere is unknown. Control of grazing and proper planning for exploitation of mineral resources are essential for its conservation.

References:
Bergmeier, E., Konstantinou, M., Tsiripidis, I., and Sýkora, K. 2009. Plant communities on metalliferous soils in northern Greece. Phytocoenologia 39(4): 411-438.
Ritter-StudniÄka, H. 1970. Die vegetation der Serpentinit vorkommen in Bosnien.Vegetatio 21: 75-156.
Tzonev, R., Pavlova, D., Sanchez-Mata, D. and Fuente, V. 2013. Contribution to the knowledge of Bulgarian serpentine grasslands and their relationships with Balkan serpentine syntaxa. Plant Biosystems 147(4): 955-969.

Criterion A Text:
Few data is available for the EU and especially area information is lacking, but from the reported trends in area (Bulgaria -5%) and Cyprus (stable) it is likely that the average EU trend is below the threshold for Near Threatened. A negative trend (- 20%) has been recorded in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the habitat seems most widespread among the other Balkan countries. A small decrease has been recorded in Albania (-3%) and Macedonia (-5%). Also for the EU28+ no European average has been calculated, due to lack of area data, but the overall trends is likely to be below the NT-threshold of -25%. No data exists for Greece, Kosovo, Croatia and Serbia. No information exists on longer historical and future trends.

Criterion B Text:
Both the values of the area of occupancy and the extent of occurrence in the EU28 are just slightly higher than the thresholds for B1 and B2. However, the exact AOO and EOO values are uncertain. On the one hand, it is likely that data gaps exist in the distribution and the AOO and EOO values are higher in reality, while on the other hand some potential distribution is included in the calculation of AOO and EOO, and in reality the values may be lower. Besides, the reported trend data in quantity and quality is very small (called "insignificantly" for Bulgaria) and therefore it is uncertain whether the habitat meets subcriterion a or b. As some pressures result from decreasing grazing (abandonment), it is concluded that there is a continuing and future threat, resulting in the overall conclusion for the EU28 of Near Threatened (NT). In the EU28+ the AOO and EOO are much larger and the habitat is assessed as Least Concern under B1, B2 and (because of a high number of locations) also B3.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity of degradation cannot be estimated accurately because no adequate data exist for most countries. Overall reported trends are between 5 and 15% extent, and slight/low severity, so the conclusion for both EU28 and EU28+ is Least Concern. No information exists on long historical or future trends in quality (CD2, CD3, C2, C3, and D2). The changes in quality are both abiotic (quarrying and mining) and biotic (grazing regime), so C/D1 has not been split into C1 and D1.

Synthesis:
The habitat type is assessed as Near Threatened (NT) at EU28 level, but with some uncertainty. Very few quantitative information was available to assess its trends in quantity and quality. It meets the criteria for Near Threatened (NT) since the habitat has a relatively small extent of occurrence ≤ 100,000 km2 (B1) and area of occupancy ≤ 100 km2 (B2) in EU28, in combination with (relatively small) continuing pressures and threats. The main threats responsible for the decline of habitat’s quantity and quality are quarrying and mining activities and changes in the grazing regime. In the EU28+ the habitat is much more widespread and does not qualify for any Red List category, and the conclusion is Least Concern (LC).

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The habitat is highly specialized and rich in local endemic plant species and subspecies in most of its localities. Ultramafic outcrops are isolated and function as biogeographical islands. They include several sub-types which have different species co

Contributors:
Habitat definition: A. ÄŒarni
Territorial data: Z. Barina, P. Dimopoulos, V. Matevski, D. Milanovic, R. Tzonev
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
E1.1i Perennial rocky calcareous grassland of subatlantic-submediterranean Europe

Habitat Description:
This habitat type occurs on shallow calcareous substrates with hardly any soil and humus, mostly on slopes. The underlying bedrock can be of different geological origin, including Carboniferous limestone and Cretaceous chalk. The open vegetation is characterized by perennials, among which a large percentage of chamaephytes. This is in contrast with habitat type 1.1d (Pioneer grassland on shallow soils on calcareous and ultramafic rocky outcrops), where annuals play a prominent role. Syntaxonomically, the vegetation type forms a separate order (Artemisio albae-Brometalia erecti) within the class Festuco-Brometea. The communities have a rather small distribution, ranging from the United Kingdom in the northwest and Italy (Liguria) in the southeast. In the National Vegetation Classification of the UK, it is represented by the sub-community with Helianthemum canum and Asperula cynanchica of the ‘Sesleria albicans-Galium sterneri grassland’ (CG9). The centre of the distribution is in France and Germany. In France, these grasslands are (for the greater part) described as ‘pelouses primaires’ in contrast to the other limestone grasslands of the Festuco-Brometea that are considered to be ‘pelouses secondaires’ or ‘semi-naturelles’. The habitat type, occurring from the lowlands to the submontane zone, is regarded as a western vicariant of E1.1g (Perennial grassland on rocky outcrops at low altitudes in Central and Southeastern Europe). The bedrock is often broken, resulting in a lot of loose material, resembling screes at higher altitudes in the mountains. The nutrient status (nitrogen, phosphorous) is extremely low, the pH high. Although the production of the vegetation is very low, grazing is important to guarantee that the sites are not grown over by shrubs and trees. As such, the habitat generally is part of a traditional management regime. 
Indicators of quality:
·      Open and low vegetation structure, with a high percentage of bare rock
·      Absence of nutrient-demanding and ruderal species
·      Chamaephytes account for a large proportion in the vegetation
·      Exposed to sunshine to support light-demanding species
·      Extensive grazing regime preventing the encroachment of shrubs and tree at the sites and the near vicinity
Characteristic species:
Flora: Vascular plants: Allium sphaerocephalon, Anthyllis vulneraria, Asperula cynanchica, Aster linosyris, Bromus erectus, Carex halleriana, Carex humilis, Coronilla minima, Euphorbia cyparissias, Fumana procumbens, Galium sterneri, Globularia punctata, Helianthemum apenninum, Helianthemum canum, Helianthemum oelandicum, Hippocrepis comosa, Koeleria vallesiana, Linum tenuifolium, Melica ciliata, Ononis pusilla, Orobanche teucrii, Potentilla tabernaemontani, Ranunculus gramineus, Seseli montanum, Stachys recta, Teucrium botrys, Teucrium chamaedrys, Teucrium montanum, Thymus praecox, Trinia glauca.
Mosses: Abietinella abietina, Encalypta streptocarpa, Homalothecium lutescens, Rhytidium rugosum, Tortella tortuosa, Trichostomum brachydontium.

Classification:
EUNIS:  
E1.2  Perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes
EuroVegChecklist:
Xero-Bromion erecti Zoller 1954
Festuco-Bromion Barbero et Loisel 1971
Annex I:
6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia) (*important orchid sites)
Emerald:
E1.2 Perennial calcareous grassland and basic steppes
MAES-2:
Grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
This habitat occurs mostly in Alpine and Continental regions, also in the Atlantic region, but most of the characteristic species also live in mountains of the Mediterranean region.

Map Description:
The map is likely to be incomplete (UK, Belgium) and incorrect for central Italy. Data: Art17, EVA, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
The surface area of this habitat has been decreasing since the middle of the 20th century, from 2,062 km2 to 1,448 km2 in the EU 28 region. Over the last 50 years a relative loss of area of approximately 30% has been reported in EU 28 and EU 28+ countries. This decline changes across countries, from 20% to 40%, and it was even more intense in previous decades: for example, in Germany a decrease of 70-90% since 1850 has been reported. This regression was mainly due to scrub encroachment, afforestation, extraction (stone quarrying), lack of management or urbanization. Regarding future trends, some countries estimate the area will remain more or less stable, probably because most of the habitat is found in protected areas. Nevertheless, the countries where it is more abundant, Italy and France, estimate it will decrease, at least slightly, in the future.

Trends in Quality:
More than a third of the area of the habitat in Europe has been subjected to moderate and even severe degradation over the last 50 years. The trends over larger historical periods are not known, and there is no agreement about what the future trend will be. Recent degradation is related mainly to succession (biocenotic evolution) due to the abandonment of extensive grazing. Trampling by tourists and nitrogen deposition have also been reported as factors contributing to loss of habitat quality. An intermediate decline (55% severity) affecting 33% of the extent of the habitat over the past 50 years has been calculated for both the EU 28 and EU 28+ regions.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
95% of the current distribution of the habitat type lies within the EU28. The habitat only exists in Europe,and its distribution centre is in France and Germany, extending northwest to the British Isles and southeast to the Apennines. The EU28 hosts nearly all of the occurrences, except for those present in Switzerland.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
Although we do not have the exact figures, the EOO is larger than 50,000 km2.

Justification of Restricted Area:
The habitat type is neither restricted to small spots, nor does it have a small total area, maybe with the exception of its occurrence in the British Isles and other areas of the Atlantic region.

Pressures and Threats:
Grasslands included in this habitat are mainly threatened by the abandonment of traditional extensive grazing, which causes shrub encroachment during the succession process. Characteristic light-demanding species, many of which are small chamaephytes, disappear in this process. Removal of grasslands for arable land and afforestation can also decrease the area they occupy, but as they are often linked to shallow calcareous substrates not so suitable for these uses, with the exception of vineyards. Another important threat is nitrogen deposition, which increases the nitrogen content of the soil and thus facilitates the growth of nutrient-demanding and ruderal species and consequently the loss of quality of the grassland. Finally, as these grasslands often occupy nice landscape views, over-attendance of people can also contribute to their loss of quality. These threats are similar along all EU 28 and EU 28+ countries.

Conservation and Management:
The maintenance of traditional silvopastoral systems is very important for the conservation of this habitat. Extensive grazing is a basic feature, and management should be focused on this key factor. The rare occurrences of the habitat in the Atlantic region (British Isles and Atlantic region in Germany and France) should receive special protection and avoid activities such as tree plantation, extraction and urbanization. In general, trampling by people should be controlled, and grassland removal for crop plantation should be avoided as long as possible.

Conservation Status:
Annex I:
6120: ATL U2, BOR U2, CON U2, MED XX, PAN U2

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
Grasslands of this habitat grow in shallow soils. Once destroyed or severely damaged, their recovery will take a long time. If the habitat degradation is due to abandonment and consequent shrub encroachment, it can only be recovered by re-introducing traditional extensive grazing.
The time needed for recovery is strongly dependent on the type of damage. As the most common is shrub encroachment, the estimation of time is given for that case.

Summary:
These open grasslands, dominated by perennials and especially rich in mat-formers, are typical of shallow, nutrient-poor, base-rich soils over sloping, rubbly limestone terrain through the lowland to sub-montane levels in subatlantic and submediterranean Europe. Extensive grazing has been crucial in maintaining the habitat free of shrub and tree encroachment and substantial losses in extent and quality have occurred where traditional agriculture has declined. Reinstatement of pastoral management is essential for restoring stands that are not already too damaged.

References:
Biondi, E. and Galdenzi, D. 2012. Phytosociological analysis of the grasslands of Montagna dei Fiori (central Italy) and syntaxonomic review of the class Festuco-Brometea in the Apennines. Plant Sociology 49(1): 91-112.
EIONET. Central data repository. 2013. 3rd Italian national report 2013. Available at: http://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/it/eu/art17/envupyjhw (Accessed: 20/10/2015).
La biodiversité en Wallonie. E1.27 - Pelouses calcaires xérophiles. Available at: http://biodiversite.wallonie.be/fr/e1-27-pelouses-calcaires-xerophiles.html?IDC=1036 (Accessed: 20/10/2015).
O'Neill, F.H., Martin, J.R., Devaney, F.M., Perrin, P.M. 2013. The Irish semi-natural grasslands survey 2007-2012. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 78. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Ireland.
Piqueray, J., Bisteau, E., Bottin, G., Mahy, G. 2007. Plant communities and species richness of the calcareous grasslands in southeast Belgium. Belgian Journal of Botany 140(2): 157-173.
Poschold, P. and WallisDeVries, M.F. 2002. The historical and socioeconomic perspective of calcareous grasslands: lessons from distant and recent past. Biological Conservation 104: 361-376.
Royer, J.M. 1984. Caracterisation, répartition et origine du Xerobromion. Colloques Phytosociologiques 11: 243-267.
Royer, J.M. 1991. Synthèse eurosibérienne, phytosociologique et phytogéographice de la classe des Festuco-Brometea. Dissertationes Botanicae 178: 1-296.
Van Speybroeck, D., Koedam, N. and Büscher, P. 1989. On the delimitation of the Mesobromion and Xerobromion in Belgium and French Lorraine. Vegetatio 81: 137-144. 
Wilson, S. and Fernández, F. 2013. National survey of limestone pavement and associated habitats in Ireland. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 73. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Ireland.

Criterion A Text:
The values for the reduction in quantity over the last 50 years were calculated from the territorial data sheets. All the countries which reported data of the habitat were used for the calculation, except Belgium, where the habitat only occurs in less than 1 km2. The habitat has decreased over the last decades from 20% in Italy to 40% in France. In Ireland there is no decrease, but the occurrence of the habitat in this country is very restricted. In total, it was reduced on average from 2,062 km2 to 1,448 km2 in EU28 countries, resulting in a reduction rate of 29.8% in both EU28 and EU28+ regions. However, if we consider the entire range of the present reported area, the estimate values of reduction range from -27.8% (EU28+) and -27.9 (EU28) to -31.3 (EU28+) and -31.2 (EU28). That is, the upper estimate is above the 30% threshold. The habitat is therefore assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion A. There is no information on longer historical trends. In the future a small further decline is expected in most of its area, but quantitative data are not available.

Criterion B Text:
Although we do not have quantitative data, both values (AOO and EOO) are large, and do not approach the thresholds for classifying the habitat in a threatened category. Nevertheless, it has to be taken into account that there is a continuing decline in spatial extent (i) and abiotic and/or biotic quality (ii, iii). This habitat is therefore assessed as Least Concern under Criterion B.

Criterion C/D Text:
The overall extent and severity of degradation are the weighted average calculated from reported data from Germany, France and Italy for EU 28 (99.9% of known area in EU28), plus Switzerland for EU 28+ (99.9% of known area in EU 28+). There has been an intermediate decline (55% severity) affecting 33% of the extent of the habitat in the past 50 years both in the EU 28 and EU 28+ regions. There is not enough information on long historical or future trends in quality to calculate precise values and these trends are unknown. The changes in quality are both abiotic and biotic and this habitat is therefore assessed as Near Threatened under Criterion C/D1.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assessed as Vulnerable since it has suffered a maximum estimate of reduction in quantity of just more than 30% in the last decades. The mean estimate calculated from territorial data is 29.8%. Although only the maximum estimate meets the criterion of reduction in quantity, it has to be taken into account that the habitat has also suffered an intermediate decline in quality (55%) affecting more than 30% of its area in the past 50 years. Considering that the main threat for its conservation is the abandonment of extensive grazing, it is expected that the decline will continue in the future.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
The territorial experts from France have reported that there are some subtypes within this habitat that deserve special attention for conservation: alluvial dry calcareous grasslands like Teucrio montani-Fumanetum procumbentis (Pabot 1940) Roy

Contributors:
Habitat definition: J. Schaminée
Territorial experts: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, G. Buffa, L. Casella, R. Delarze, L.M. Delescaille, P. Finck, J.R. Martin, A. Mikolajczak, D. Paelinckx, G. Pezzi, G., U. Raths, U. Riecken, A. Ssymank, D. Viciani
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


Habitat Type Name:
E1.1j Dry steppic, submediterranean pasture of South-Eastern Europe

Habitat Description:
This habitat type is composed of dry steppic, submediterranean pastures, found along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea and the southeastern coastal districts of the Italian Peninsula. These semi-natural grasslands appear in the meso/supra-Mediterranean and Mediterranean-montane vegetation belts, where the zonal vegetation is represented by thermophilous deciduous forest, dominated by Quercus pubescens s.l., Ostrya carpinifolia and Carpinus orientalis, or locally (especially in Italy) by evergreen forests dominated by Quercus ilex. As the mountain chains extend parallel to the coastline, the climatic influence does not penetrate deeply into the inland regions of the Balkan Peninsula. The climate shows two peaks of precipitation during the year, with the main peak appearing in autumn (November) and a second peak in spring (May). The amount of precipitation can be very fluctuating and vary up to 3000 mm on mountain barriers. However, even when precipitation is relatively high, the water flows mainly underground due to the nature of the bedrock, which is mainly composed of carbonate. Due to the lack of precipitation and the high temperature reached during the summer, the vegetation suffers from drought during these months. Winters are mild, with temperatures that do not drop much below freezing.
Since the bedrock generally lies close to the surface, these habitats are characterized by many chamaephytes and can be used only as pastures. Sometimes the carbonate bedrock is substituted by “flysch” marls (terra rossa) and sandstones. The morphology of this habitat is characterized by valleys, dolinas and sink-holes with depositional soils and clay from decalcification at the bottom.
Two habitat subtypes may be distinguished based on their biogeographic distribution, which correspond to two alliances: Chrysopogono-Saturejion subspicatae for the Balkan Peninsula, and Hippocrepido glaucae-Stipion austroitalicae, which is endemic to southeastern Italy. The latter refers to steppe grasslands with the endemic species Stipa austroitalica.
This habitat type is the result of a long time of human influence. After the Second World War, abandonment of this habitat begun. Firstly, only the less productive pastures were abandoned, but later also other examples of this grasslands were not managed anymore. Nowadays, a mosaic with various stages of scrub encroachment is found. Succession towards forests begins with high stalk plants (e.g. Umbelliferaea) and scrub species (e.g. Cotinus coggygria). In order to maintain these habitats, traditional management (grazing, mowing) should be continued. In early successional stages, restoration is relatively easy by introduction of livestock. However, livestock intensification leads to the destruction of the habitat, so animal numbers should not be too high. In certain sites, this habitat is affected by urbanization.
Indicators of good quality:
Species richness of the grasslands and presence of character species
Absence of invasive species
Absence of high tall herbs, shrubs and trees
Regular grazing/mowing
Absence of intensive grazing

Characteristic species:
Flora: Vascular plants: Allium ochroleucon, Anthyllis montana subsp. jacquinii, Anthyllis vulneraria subsp. polyphylla, Asperula cynanchica, Aster linosyris, Betonica officinalis subsp. serotina, Botriochloa ischaemum, Bromus erectus, Carex humilis, Centaurea triumfetti subsp. adscendens, Chrysopogon gryllus, Cirsium pannonicum, Crepis chondrilloides, Danthonia alpina, Dianthus carthusinorum subsp. sanguineus, Dianthus garganicus, Eryngium amethystinum, Euphrasia illyrica, Festuca rupicola, Anacamptis pyramidalis, Fumana procumbens, Galium purpureum, Genista sericea, Gentiana tergestina, Globularia cordifolia, Helianthemum ovatum, Hippocrepis glauca, Inula ensifolia, Iris pseudopumila, Knautia illyrica, Koeleria splendens, Lathyrus latifolius, Lathyrus pannonicus, Leontodon crispus, Linum tenuifolium, Medicago falcata, Medicago prostrate, Narcisus radiiflorus, Onobrychis arenaria subsp. tomasinii, Plantago argentea subsp. liburnica, Plantago holosteum, Polygala nicaensis subsp. mediteranea, Potentilla australis, Ranunculus bulbosus, Rhinanthus freynii, Satureja montana, Satureja subspicata subsp. liburnica, Scabiosa gramuntia, Scorzonera villosa, Sesleria tenuifolia, Stipa austroitalica, Stipa eriocaulis subsp. austriaca, Teucrium montanum, Thapsia garganica, Thesium divaricatum, Thlaspi pracox, Thymus longicaulis, Thymus spinulosus, Tragopogon tomasinii, Trinia glauca.

Classification:
EUNIS:
E1.2 Perennial calcareous grasslands and basic steppes
EuroVegChecklist:
Chrysopogono-Saturejion subspicatae Horvat et Horvatic 1934                 
Hippocrepido glaucae-Stipion austroitalicae Forte et Terzi in Forte et al. 2005
Annex I:
62A0 Eastern sub-Mediterranean dry grasslands (Scorzoneretalia villosae)
Emerald:
E1.55 Eastern sub-Mediterranean dry grassland
MAES-2:
Terrestrial - Grassland
IUCN:
4.4 Temperate grassland

Justification Outstanding Example of Biogeographical Region:
These dry grasslands are present both in the Continental and the Mediterranean Biogeographic regions, however their optimum occurs especially in the climatic transitional zone between the two regions. They concur in shaping a cultural landscape linked to the traditional land use of these areas, formerly characterized by extensive grazing systems, which are now increasingly at risk of disappearance due to different economic priorities and changing customs of the local populations.

Map Description:
The map represents the range rather good, but data gaps will exist. Data sources: EVA, Art17, NAT.

Trends in Quantity:
Comprehensive quantitative past data are not available for the whole habitat range. However, during the past 50 years a general decreasing trend has been observed by territorial experts, mostly due to abandonment of the traditional grazing activities and consequent start of the successional processes. Some countries (e.g. Greece) report a current stable trend nevertheless. The overall decline in quantity, calculated based on the quantitative data and trends provided by the countries of occurrence, is 28% in the EU28, which is particularly severe in Slovenia (60%). The average decline in the EU28+ is of 27%. A future decline in quantity can be expected, due to ongoing abandonment. Similarly to other grassland types which are subject to intense dynamic processes of the vegetation as a consequence of the abandonment, the reported surfaces might be an underestimation since the patches currently in mosaic with the scrub vegetation generally can not be properly mapped. In any case, these areas are strongly affected by the successional processes and will be lost in the next years if no conservation measure is put into practice.

Trends in Quality:
Comprehensive qualitative past data are not available for the whole habitat range. However, during the past 50 years a clear decline, from slight to severe in the different territories, has been observed by the territorial experts, mostly due to abandonment of the traditional grazing activities and consequent start of the successional processes, with important changes in the floristic composition, loss of rare species and settlement of taxa typical of shrubby and fringe communities. The overall severity of decline in quality, calculated on the basis of the values of extent and severity of qualitative decline provided by the countries of occurrence, is 75% on average, affecting 50% of the total habitat surface in EU28 and 48% in EU28+. A future qualitative decline can be expected due to ongoing abandonment.

% of Distribution of the Habitat Type within the EU 28:
Considering that data from Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo and Macedonia are still missing, 96.5% of the total distribution area of this habitat type lies inside the EU28 territory.

Justification of Small Range/Regression:
The EOO largely exceeds the indicated threshold (50,000 km2).

Justification of Restricted Area:
The haibtat type does not have an intrinsically restricted area.

Pressures and Threats:
This is a typically semi-natural habitat, whose maintainance is strictly dependent on traditional activities and a sustainable land use based on extensive grazing. Consequently, the major threat for this habitat is represented by the abandonment of pastoral systems, followed by successional processes which promote the settlement of shrubs and herbs from forest fringes. Overgrazing can also pose a problem to this habitat, since an excess of grazing load can damage the soil structure and chemical composition, the vegetation structure and its flora. Due to an ongoing abandonment, further declines can be expected in the future. The habitat can be also threatened by intense urbanization and climate change, the latter especially in case of extreme prolongation of summer drought, which favours therophyte species.

Conservation and Management:
Continuation, promotion and in many cases reintroduction of the traditional pastoral managing systems (including grazing and mowing) are the most effective ways to maintain this habitat type. During the last 50 years, a large amount of these areas have been progressively abandoned because of their poor productivity, causing a strong development of scrub and woody vegetation. In early successional stages restoration is relatively easy by introduction of livestock, but when the successional processes have acted for a long time, the conservation measures should include the mechanical eradication of the shrubs, before being used again as extensive pastures. It should also be considered that the intensification of livestock leads to the destruction of the habitat, so the number of animal individuals should not be too high. In some sites the habitat is threatened by urbanization.

Capacity to Recover its Typical Character and Functionality?:
This habitat is characterised by dry, shallow and rocky soils. The successional process consequent to the abandonment could have affected the soil condition, thus it may require a longer period for the re-establishment of the typical flora now, even after the mechanical removal of the shrubs. Better results can be expected when adopting the traditional land-use practices based on extensive grazing.

Summary:
These dry steppic pastures are typical of sharply-draining, base-rich soils developed over valley sides, dolines and sink-holes around the Adriatic coasts where the submediterranean climate is characterised by late autumn and spring rains. Dominated by often rich mixtures of graminoids and forbs, the habitat is dependent on extensive grazing, and abandonment of traditional farming has led to widespread losses in extent and quality and patchy survival within mosaics of scrub and woodland. Restoration depends on the re-instatement of traditional regimes of grazing and/or mowing.

References:
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Allegrezza, M., Anzellotti, I., Azzella, M.M., Carli, E., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Facioni, L., Galdenzi, D., Gasparri, R., Lasen, C., Pesaresi, S., Poldini, L., Sburlino, G., Taffetani, F., Vagge, I., Zitti, S., Zivkovic L. 2014. Plant communities of Italy: The Vegetation Prodrome. Plant Biosystems 148(4): 728-814. doi: 10.1080/11263504.2014.948527
Biondi, E., Blasi, C., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R., Zivkovic, L. 2009. Manuale Italiano di interpretazione degli habitat della Direttiva 92/43/CEE. Società Botanica Italiana. Ministero dell’Ambiente e della tutela del territorio e del mare, D.P.N. http://vnr.unipg.it/habitat/
Biondi, E., Burrascano, S., Casavecchia, S., Copiz, R., Del Vico, E., Galdenzi, D., Gigante, D., Lasen, C., Spampinato, G., Venanzoni, R., Zivkovic, L., Blasi C. 2012. Diagnosis and syntaxonomic interpretation of Annex I Habitats (Dir. 92/43/EEC) in Italy at the alliance level. Plant Sociology 49: 5-37.
Blasi, C. (Ed.), 2010. La Vegetazione d’Italia. Palombi & Partner S.r.l. Roma. ISBN: 978-88-6060-290-9
Buzo, K. 1990. Bimësia e kullotave dhe e livadheve nattyrore te Shqiperisë. Kombinayi Polografik, Tirana.
Corine Land Cover 2006. CLC2006 Seamless vector data. available online at http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/clc-2006-vector-data-version-3
DreškoviÄ‡, N., Äug, S., Stupar, V., HamziÄ‡, A., Lelo, S., MuratoviÄ‡, E., LukiÄ‡-Bilela, L., BrujiÄ‡, J., MilanoviÄ‡, Ä., Kotrošan, D., 2011. NATURA2000 u  Bosni i Hercegovini. WWF Mediterranean Program Ofï¬ce, Europe’s Living Heart. Rome-Sarajevo
Forte, L., Perrino, E.V. and Terzi, M., 2005. Le praterie a Stipa austroitalica Martinovsky ssp. austroitalica dell’Alta Murgia (Puglia) e della Murgia Materana (Basilicata). Fitosociologia 42(2): 83-103.
Genovesi, P., Angelini, P., Bianchi, E., Dupré, E., Ercole, S., Giacanelli, V., Ronchi, F., Stoch, F. 2014. Specie e habitat di interesse comunitario in Italia: distribuzione, stato di conservazione e trend. MATTM, ISPRA. 194 pp.
HorvatiÄ‡, S. 1973. Syntaxonomic analysis of the vegetation of dry grasslands and stony meadows in eastern adriatic coastal karts district based on the latesr phytocoenological research. Fragmenta Herbologica Jugoslavica 32: 1-15.
ISPRA, 2009-2014. Progetto Carta della Natura alla scala 1:50.000. http://www.isprambiente.gov.it/it/servizi-per-lambiente/sistema-carta-della-natura/carta-della-natura-alla-scala-1-50.000
KaligariÄ, M., Culiberg, M. and Kramberger, B. 2006. Recent vegetation history of the North Adriatic grasslands: expansion and decay of an anthropogenic habitat. Fohlia Geobotanica 41(3): 241-258.
Lakusic, R., Pavlovic, D., Abadzic, S., Grg ic, P., 1978 - Prodromus biljnih zajednica Bosne i Hercegovine. God. Biol. inst. Univ. u Sarajevu 30: 5-87.
MATTM, 2014. 3rd Italian national report 2013 - Report on Implementation Measures (Article 17, Habitats Directive), 2007-2013. http://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/it/eu/art17/envupyjhw
Pop, I. and HodiÅŸan, L. 1964. ContribuÅ£ii la cunoaÅŸterea vegetaÅ£iei calcarelor de la GodineÅŸti - Zam (Reg. Hunedoara, Raion Ilia). Conditions to the vegetation of the limestonehills from Godinesti-Zam (Raion Ilia, reg. Hunedoara). Contrib. Bot. 229-239.
Terzi, M. 2011. Nomenclatural revision for the order Scorzonero-Chrysopogonetalia. Folia Geobot 46: 411-444.
Terzi M., Di Pietro, R. and D’Amico, F.S. 2010. Analisi delle Specie Indicatrici applicata alle comunità a Stipa austroitalica Martinovsky e relative problematiche sintassonomiche. Fitosociologia, 47(1): 3-29.

Criterion A Text:
The average quantitative trend in the last 50 years shows a reduction of 28% in EU28 and 27% in EU28+, and therefore it qualifies as Near Threatened under Criterion A1. The trend reported in the countries of occurrence is mostly of a decrease. Croatia accounts for the most remarkable surface loss, with about 1,000 km2 (30% of the former area) lost during the last decades. Additionally, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina reported high rates of area reduction (respectively 60% and 25%). There is no information available regarding future and historical declines.

Criterion B Text:
The ongoing tendency to abandon the traditional grazing activities represents a threatening process likely to cause continuing decline in quantity and/or quality for this habitat type within the next 20 years, as a consequence of the dynamic processes of the vegetation, causing floristic and phytocoenotical changes affecting the biotic quality of the habitat. For this reason, a further reduction in the spatial extent can be realistically expected. The values of EOO and AOO largely exceed the thresholds for a threatened category and as a consequence the assessment under Criterion B results in Least Concern.

Criterion C/D Text:
The reduction in biotic/abiotic quality over the last 50 years affected 50% of the total extent of the habitat in EU 28 and 48% in EU28+, with a relative severity of 75% in both cases. The habitat is assessed in the EU28 as Vulnerable under Criterion C/D1, while it is assessed as Near Threatened in the EU28+. The reduction for most countries is both biotic and abiotic. There is no information on the historical reduction in quality. The indications for future trends in the different countries, when available, agree that a further decrease should be expected, although a precise assessment based on Criteria C/D3 is not possible due to lack of data.

Synthesis:
The habitat is assessed as Vulnerable (VU) in the EU28 based on the Criterion C/D1, and as Near Threatened (NT) in EU28+, based on Criteria A1 and C/D1. The reduction in biotic/abiotic quality over the last 50 years affected on average 50% of the EU28 and 48% of the EU28+ distribution, with a relative severity of 75%. The reduction in quantity in the last 50 years was of 28% in EU28 and 27% in EU28+, qualifying this habitat in both cases as Near Threatenend under Criterion A1.

Sub-habitats in Need of Examination:
This habitat includes the endemic grasslands of the alliance Hippocrepido glaucae-Stipion austroitalicae, whose distribution is limited to the South-Eastern regions of the Italian Peninsula. They deserve special attention due to their very res

Contributors:
Type description: A. ÄŒarni.
Territorial data: E. Agrillo, S. Armiraglio, S. Assini, F. Attorre, Z. Barina, C. Bita-Nicolae, G. Buffa, A. ÄŒarni, A., L. Casella, P. Dimopoulos, D. Gigante, G. Giusso del Galdo, N. Juvan, C. Marcenò, Ä. MilanoviÄ‡, S. Sciandrello, Z. Škvorc
Working Group Grasslands: I. Biurrun, J. Dengler, D. Gigante, Z. Molnar, D. Paternoster, J. Rodwell, J. Schaminée, R. Tzonev


