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Various policies and measures put an emphasis on managing water demand (demand-side measures). These include disincentivising pricing mechanisms, enhanced awareness-raising, advanced metering, subsidies, and fiscal incentives. For instance, the introduction of water metering mixed with pricing and non-pricing instruments has already lowered the water consumption per capita in large parts of Europe (Dige et al. 2017). In some countries, however, especially in Southern Europe, efforts to address over-abstraction and to secure long-term sustainability remain inadequate (Trémolet et al. 2019). Permit and licensing mechanisms have not been fully effective in averting illegal abstraction and over-abstraction in certain European regions (Ross, 2016).

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