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Member States have made significant investments into efficiency programs, including improved irrigation scheduling and advice provision, reduction in water loss conveyance, and water saving irrigation technologies (Giannakis et al., 2016). Drip and sprinkler irrigation, which have the highest water efficiency (respectively 85-95% and 70-85%), generally prevail in Europe, while many gravity-fed and surface irrigation systems of lower efficiency (40-60%) remain across Europe, in particular amongst small farm holders in the Mediterranean where surface irrigation has traditionally been used. Moving to more efficient irrigation, for instance by improving the lining of canals or switching to pressured and drip irrigation systems, could further save water.

can be estimated through the water intensity of crop production, which relates the amount of water used to produce a crop to its economic value. The water intensity of crop production in Europe has reduced by 12% between 2005 and 2016 (EEA, 2020b). The strongest reduction occurred in Eastern Europe (nearly 32%) due to increases in the gross added value generated by crops and a reduction in abstraction per ha. Southern Europe countries also reduced its water intensity (about 10%), although some countries such as Cyprus, Greece, Italy and Malta experienced in an increase due to an increase of abstraction per ha and a decline in added value linked to lower crop yields, possibly as a result of climate change.

The idea that moving to more efficient use in irrigation systems and increasing water intensity (productivity) is always beneficial in environmental, social and economic terms warrants some words of caution (Zoebl, 2006; Berbel et al., 2018). More efficient irrigation infrastructures require large investments and have higher operational and running costs, placing additional burden on farm finances (Dumont et al., 2013; Masseroni et al., 2017). Furthermore, return flows resulting from highly inefficient irrigation systems can contribute to base flows beneficial to downstream uses and sensitive ecosystems, which may have developed over centuries and have high cultural values. Higher efficiency lead to reduced percolation losses, thereby impacting return flows.

Investments in water efficiency programs should therefore be accompanied by a careful consideration of water balances at farm, basin and aquifer level, including consideration of surface-groundwater exchanges and dynamics and impact on groundwater-dependent ecosystems (EC, 2015; Expósito and Berbel, 2017). Attention needs to be given to potential rebound effects (see Textbox 4.1) and ensure that the saved water is reallocated to environmental needs.