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 In many cases, minerals are extracted from surface water. Sand used to reinforce the coast is extracted from other sea areas, while clay and sand used for concrete and building are usually extracted from the flood plains of rivers. Gravel mining have occurred in several European river basins e.g. in north-eastern Italy, and some rivers of the Carpathians, resulting in  widespread channel adjustments in the last 100 years, in particular incision and narrowing (Rinaldi et al. 2005  ; Surian, 2006; Surian et al., 2008).