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Lakes within cities have also been physically modified as their natural shores were replaced by concrete structures and/or their hydrology modified to serve human uses.

The next sections describe the responses of cities and towns to impacts of physical modifications on their rivers, streams and lakes in recent decades. This report distinguishes between activities that aim at a) hydromorphological restoration mainly of rivers and streams of medium/small size, b) activities of de-culverting covered streams and rivers and c) restoration of urban water bodies with strong links to flood risk management. In practice, all these types of activities are strongly interconnected and often take place simultaneously in the context of the same restoration scheme.