Executive summary

Swimming is consistently among the top public outdoor recreational activities in Europe and has numerous positive effects on human health and psychology. Bathing sites are often very attractive tourist destinations. The need to protect and improve bathing water quality in both marine and freshwater environments is thus a key issue for policy makers and environmental managers.

For decades, European countries have shared a common vision to sustain good quality bathing waters. Efforts to achieve this target have been prompted and supported by the Bathing Water Directive, introduced in 1976. The Bathing Water Directive (BWD) was revised in 2006. The update was based on up-to-date scientific evidence on the most reliable indicator parameters for predicting microbiological health risk for designated European bathing waters. In addition, the updated BWD simplified its management and surveillance methods.

The bathing season in Europe usually lasts from May to September. During that time, local and national authorities take bathing water samples and analyse them for the types of bacteria which indicate pollution from sewage or livestock (e.g. Escherichia coli and intestinal enterococci). Based on the levels of bacteria detected, bathing water quality is then classified as ‘excellent’, ‘good’, ‘sufficient’ or ‘poor’.

All European Member States make great efforts to improve the quality of existing bathing waters, to provide up-to-date information on their state to the public, and to make bathing feasible in urbanised and formerly heavily polluted surface waters. Significant investments in urban waste water treatment plants, improvements in sewage networks and other measures have contributed to a reduction in ‘poor’ bathing water quality in more than 3000 large cities in Europe. Safe bathing is now possible in many European capitals – including Amsterdam, Berlin, Budapest, Copenhagen, London, Riga and Vienna, – a feat that would have been unimaginable in the 1970s.

Thanks to successful environmental policy and management guided by the BWD, the percentage of European bathing waters achieving at least ‘sufficient’ quality (the minimum quality standards set by BWD) increased from just 74% in 1991 to over 95% in 2003, and has remained quite stable since then. The percentage of bathing waters at the highest water quality (classified as ‘excellent’) has increased from 53% in 1991 to 85% in 2019. Thanks to common European action, more than eight out of ten of Europe’s monitored bathing waters now have ‘excellent’ water quality.

Whilst bathing water quality in Europe is increasing, and bathing is today possible even in some heavily urbanised areas, there is still a need for integrated and adaptive management to mitigate both existing and emerging pressures.

 The major bathing water management challenges in Europe are:

Faecal bacteria

A common cause of ‘poor’ water bathing water quality is the presence of faecal bacteria, which can pose significant public health risks. Major sources of bacteria include sewage, inefficient waste water treatment plants, animal waste (e.g. birds and dogs at beaches) and water draining from farms and farmland. Significant investments in sewage systems and treatment plants have helped reduce faecal bacteria levels in European bathing waters in recent decades.

Storm water overflows

Sewerage systems in cities are not always able to drain all storm water, and after periods of heavy rain, bathing water quality can decrease significantly due to overflows. The number of such pollution events has increased in recent years. Sewage overflows across Europe are increasingly being managed using new measures such as the construction of storage tanks and the creation of nature-based retention basins that serve also as urban green areas. Modelling and warning systems can be put in place to advice bathers against bathing during short-term pollution events.

Nutrient and chemical pollution

Nutrient and chemical pollution due to agricultural run-off and insufficient waste water treatment can cause a number of environmental impacts on bathing waters, potentially making them unsafe for public use. Nutrient pollution can cause excessive algae growth and eutrophic blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Other substances such as heavy metals can enter bathing waters from both natural and anthropogenic sources and be deposited on their coasts and banks. These can originate from either diffuse (non-point) sources, such as runoff from land, or point sources such as industrial outfall or natural springs containing high concentrations of mercury.

The positive impacts of the wide-ranging and collaborative measures that have been supported by the BWD since 1976 represent a major positive step for environmental policy and management in Europe. However, the task is not accomplished yet. Whilst environmental managers continue to deal with the key issues above, emerging challenges such as climate change and plastic pollution are increasing the complexity of bathing water management.

Climate change

Projected climate changes in Europe over the coming decades will bring challenges for bathing water management and the recreation activities and tourism industries that rely on clean bathing waters. The impacts of ongoing climate change on aquatic ecosystems will vary geographically across Europe (EEA, 2017b). Many coastal bathing water resorts and infrastructure will be threatened by rising sea levels and more varied and volatile storms. Increased river flows may damage bathing sites, destroy bathing water infrastructure and shift and deposit debris. In some regions, drought and freshwater scarcity may cause bathing sites to disappear, or to be affected by issues such as eutrophication. Due to temperature rises, the bathing season will be prolonged into spring and autumn in some areas. Climate change will shift conditions suitable for bathing northwards, meaning that more bathing water sites are expected to be identified and monitored across Europe in the future.

 Plastic pollution

A clean coastline is vital for beach tourism. Marine litter is aesthetically the most unappealing pollutant to swimmers, and dirty bathing sites are unattractive for visitors. Litter, particularly plastic litter, is accumulating in our seas and along our coasts and poses threats both to marine biodiversity and bathers (EEA, 2015b). Plastic litter damages fisheries and tourism, kills and injures a wide range of marine life, has the capacity to transport potentially harmful chemicals and invasive species and can represent a threat to human health (Thompson, et al., 2009). 

Beach and sea floor litter at bathing water sites might cause injuries, and when fractured into micro pieces in water can be accidentally ingested by swimmers. Accumulation of such ‘microlitter’ in the human body may cause health effects. The extent of such health effects is still unknown, and a precautionary approach is necessary.

It is clear that bathing water legislation has helped improve the microbiological quality of Europe’s bathing waters. However, the task is not accomplished yet. Achieving the vision of ‘excellent’ bathing water quality across Europe is closely linked with how we address emerging future challenges such as climate change and plastic pollution.

Besides emerging challenges, there will be unexpected risks that may require management, such as the COVID-19 virus and pandemic. There are currently no viral indicators as parameters in the BWD. The EEA has published the ‘European bathing water quality in 2019 Briefing’, in which it provided information on risks in Europe for the 2020 bathing season with regard to COVID-19 and links to key guidance documents. Members of the public are advised to always follow the guidance and instructions at the bathing sites, from their local and national authorities in order to prevent the spread of the virus.

This report summarises how 40 years of European environmental policy and management has significantly improved bathing water quality across Europe. We outline the key challenges for bathing water management in Europe, and describe how these are addressed by governments implementing the BWD through the specific management measures, strategies and practices. In addition, we point out that the improvement of bathing water quality can serve as inspiration and best practices in environmental management. Further, we discuss how bathing water protection and restoration does not necessarily take place only at popular coastal resorts. On the contrary, improving bathing water quality is feasible and desirable for the rivers and lakes within the towns and cities that many of us live in. Through the report we highlight the value and importance of bathing waters in Europe and identify challenges for future bathing water management.